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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  95        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  96        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  97        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  98        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  99        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 100        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 101        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 102        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 103        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 106        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 107            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 108        ),
 109        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 110            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 111        ),
 112        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 115        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 116        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 117        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 118        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 119        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 120        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 121        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 122        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 129        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 131            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 132        ),
 133        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 135        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 136        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 137        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 138        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 140        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 141        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 142        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 143        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 144        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 145        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.args.get("zone")),
 148        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 150        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 151        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 152        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 153        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 154        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 155        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 156        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 157        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 159    }
 160
 161    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 162    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 163    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 164
 165    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 166    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 167    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 168
 169    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 170    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 173    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 174
 175    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 176    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 177
 178    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 179    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 180
 181    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 182    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 183
 184    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 185    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 186
 187    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 188    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 189
 190    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 191    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 192
 193    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 194    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 195
 196    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 197    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 198
 199    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 200    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 201
 202    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 203    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 204
 205    # Whether join hints should be generated
 206    JOIN_HINTS = True
 207
 208    # Whether table hints should be generated
 209    TABLE_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # Whether query hints should be generated
 212    QUERY_HINTS = True
 213
 214    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 215    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 216
 217    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 218    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 219
 220    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 221    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 222
 223    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 224    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 225
 226    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 227    RETURNING_END = True
 228
 229    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 230    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 231
 232    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 233    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 234
 235    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 236    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 237
 238    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 239    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 240
 241    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 242    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 243    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 244    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 245
 246    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 247    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 248
 249    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 250    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 251
 252    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 253    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 254
 255    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 256    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 257
 258    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 259    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 260
 261    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 262    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 263
 264    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 265    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 266
 267    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 268    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 269
 270    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 272
 273    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 274    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 275
 276    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 277    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 278
 279    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 280    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 281
 282    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 283    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 284
 285    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 286    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 287
 288    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 289    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 290
 291    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 292    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 293
 294    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 295    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 296
 297    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 298    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 299
 300    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 301    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 302
 303    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 304    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 305
 306    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 307    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 308
 309    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 310    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 311
 312    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 313    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 314
 315    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 316    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 317
 318    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 319    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 320
 321    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 322    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 323    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 324
 325    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 326    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 327
 328    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 329    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 330
 331    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 332    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 333
 334    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 335    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 336
 337    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 338    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 339
 340    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 341    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 342
 343    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 344    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 345    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 346    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 347
 348    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 349    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 350
 351    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 352    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 353
 354    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 355    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 356
 357    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 358    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 359
 360    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 361    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 362
 363    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 364    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 365
 366    # The HEX function name
 367    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 368
 369    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 370    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 371
 372    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 373    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 374
 375    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 376        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 377        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 378        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 379        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 380        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 381        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 382        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 383        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 384        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 385        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 386    }
 387
 388    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 389        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 390        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 391        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 392        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 393        "DAYS": "DAY",
 394        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 395        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 396        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 397        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 398    }
 399
 400    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 401        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 402        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 403        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 404        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 405        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 406            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 407            if e.args.get("windows")
 408            else ""
 409        ),
 410    }
 411
 412    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 413
 414    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 415
 416    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 417    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 418
 419    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 420        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 422        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 426        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 428        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 433        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 435        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 443        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 444        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 445        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 446        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 447        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 449        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 451        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 452        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 457        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 458        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 459        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 460        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 461        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 463        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 466        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 469        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 477        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 481        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 483        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 484        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 487        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 490        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 492        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 495        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 498        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 499        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500    }
 501
 502    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 503    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 504
 505    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 506    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 507        exp.Create,
 508        exp.Delete,
 509        exp.Drop,
 510        exp.From,
 511        exp.Insert,
 512        exp.Join,
 513        exp.Select,
 514        exp.SetOperation,
 515        exp.Update,
 516        exp.Where,
 517        exp.With,
 518    )
 519
 520    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 521    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 522        exp.Binary,
 523        exp.SetOperation,
 524    )
 525
 526    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 527    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 528        exp.Column,
 529        exp.Literal,
 530        exp.Neg,
 531        exp.Paren,
 532    )
 533
 534    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 535        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 536        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 537        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 538        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 539    }
 540
 541    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 542    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 543
 544    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 545
 546    __slots__ = (
 547        "pretty",
 548        "identify",
 549        "normalize",
 550        "pad",
 551        "_indent",
 552        "normalize_functions",
 553        "unsupported_level",
 554        "max_unsupported",
 555        "leading_comma",
 556        "max_text_width",
 557        "comments",
 558        "dialect",
 559        "unsupported_messages",
 560        "_escaped_quote_end",
 561        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 562        "_next_name",
 563    )
 564
 565    def __init__(
 566        self,
 567        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 568        identify: str | bool = False,
 569        normalize: bool = False,
 570        pad: int = 2,
 571        indent: int = 2,
 572        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 573        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 574        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 575        leading_comma: bool = False,
 576        max_text_width: int = 80,
 577        comments: bool = True,
 578        dialect: DialectType = None,
 579    ):
 580        import sqlglot
 581        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 582
 583        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 584        self.identify = identify
 585        self.normalize = normalize
 586        self.pad = pad
 587        self._indent = indent
 588        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 589        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 590        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 591        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 592        self.comments = comments
 593        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 594
 595        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 596        self.normalize_functions = (
 597            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 598        )
 599
 600        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 601        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 602            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 603        )
 604        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 605            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 606        )
 607
 608        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 609
 610    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 611        """
 612        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 613
 614        Args:
 615            expression: The syntax tree.
 616            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 617                it is safer to copy.
 618
 619        Returns:
 620            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 621        """
 622        if copy:
 623            expression = expression.copy()
 624
 625        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 626
 627        self.unsupported_messages = []
 628        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 629
 630        if self.pretty:
 631            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 632
 633        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 634            return sql
 635
 636        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 637            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 638                logger.warning(msg)
 639        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 640            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 641
 642        return sql
 643
 644    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 645        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 646        if (
 647            not expression.parent
 648            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 649            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 650        ):
 651            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 652
 653            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 654
 655        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 656            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 657
 658            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 659
 660        return expression
 661
 662    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 663        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 664            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 665        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 666
 667    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 668        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 669
 670    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 671        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 672
 673    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 674        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 675        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 676        return comment
 677
 678    def maybe_comment(
 679        self,
 680        sql: str,
 681        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 682        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 683        separated: bool = False,
 684    ) -> str:
 685        comments = (
 686            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 687            if self.comments
 688            else None
 689        )
 690
 691        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 692            return sql
 693
 694        comments_sql = " ".join(
 695            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 696        )
 697
 698        if not comments_sql:
 699            return sql
 700
 701        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 702
 703        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 704            return (
 705                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 706                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 707                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 708            )
 709
 710        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 711
 712    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 713        this_sql = (
 714            self.sql(expression)
 715            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 716            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 717        )
 718        if not this_sql:
 719            return "()"
 720
 721        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 722        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 723
 724    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 725        original = self.identify
 726        self.identify = False
 727        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 728        self.identify = original
 729        return result
 730
 731    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 732        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 733            return name.upper()
 734        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 735            return name.lower()
 736        return name
 737
 738    def indent(
 739        self,
 740        sql: str,
 741        level: int = 0,
 742        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 743        skip_first: bool = False,
 744        skip_last: bool = False,
 745    ) -> str:
 746        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 747            return sql
 748
 749        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 750        lines = sql.split("\n")
 751
 752        return "\n".join(
 753            (
 754                line
 755                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 756                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 757            )
 758            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 759        )
 760
 761    def sql(
 762        self,
 763        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 764        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 765        comment: bool = True,
 766    ) -> str:
 767        if not expression:
 768            return ""
 769
 770        if isinstance(expression, str):
 771            return expression
 772
 773        if key:
 774            value = expression.args.get(key)
 775            if value:
 776                return self.sql(value)
 777            return ""
 778
 779        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 780
 781        if callable(transform):
 782            sql = transform(self, expression)
 783        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 784            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 785
 786            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 787                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 788            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 789                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 790            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 791                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 792            else:
 793                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 794        else:
 795            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 796
 797        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 798
 799    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 800        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 801        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 802        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 803
 804    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 805        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 806        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 807        options = expression.args.get("options")
 808        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 809        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 810        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 811        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 812        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 813
 814    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 815        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 816            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 817        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 818        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 819
 820    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 821        return ".".join(
 822            self.sql(part)
 823            for part in (
 824                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 825                expression.args.get("db"),
 826                expression.args.get("table"),
 827                expression.args.get("this"),
 828            )
 829            if part
 830        )
 831
 832    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 833        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 834
 835        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 836            join_mark = ""
 837            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 838
 839        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 840
 841    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 843        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 844        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 845        return f"{position}{this}"
 846
 847    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 848        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 849        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 850        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 851        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 852        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 853        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 854        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 855        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 856
 857        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 858            kind = ""
 859
 860        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 861
 862    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 864        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 865        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 866
 867    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 869        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 870            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 871        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 872            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 873        else:
 874            persisted = ""
 875        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 876
 877    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 878        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 879
 880    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 881        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 882            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 883        else:
 884            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 885
 886        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 887
 888    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 889        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 890    ) -> str:
 891        this = ""
 892        if expression.this is not None:
 893            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 894            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 895
 896        start = expression.args.get("start")
 897        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 898        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 899        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 900        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 901        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 902        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 903        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 904        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 905        cycle_sql = ""
 906
 907        if cycle is not None:
 908            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 909            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 910
 911        sequence_opts = ""
 912        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 913            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 914            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 915
 916        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 917        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 918
 919        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 920
 921    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 922        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 923    ) -> str:
 924        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 925        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 926        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 927
 928    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 929        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 930    ) -> str:
 931        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 932
 933    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 934        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 935
 936    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 937        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 938
 939    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 940        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 941        if desc is not None:
 942            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 943        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 944
 945    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 947        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 948        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 949        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 950        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 951        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 952        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 953
 954    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 955        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 956
 957    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 958        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 959        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 960        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 961
 962        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 963
 964        properties_sql = ""
 965        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 966            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 967        ):
 968            properties_sql = self.sql(
 969                exp.Properties(
 970                    expressions=[
 971                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 972                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 973                    ]
 974                )
 975            )
 976
 977            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 978                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 979            elif not self.pretty:
 980                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 981                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 982
 983        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 984        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 985
 986        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 987        if expression_sql:
 988            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 989
 990            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 991                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 992                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 993                        exp.Properties(
 994                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 995                        ),
 996                        wrapped=False,
 997                    )
 998                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 999                else:
1000                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1001
1002        postindex_props_sql = ""
1003        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1004            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1005                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1006                wrapped=False,
1007                prefix=" ",
1008            )
1009
1010        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1011        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1012        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1013
1014        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1015        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1016
1017        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1018        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1019            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1020                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1021                sep=" ",
1022                prefix=" ",
1023                wrapped=False,
1024            )
1025
1026        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1027
1028        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1029        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1030            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1031                exp.Properties(
1032                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1033                ),
1034                sep=" ",
1035                prefix=" ",
1036                wrapped=False,
1037            )
1038
1039        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1040        no_schema_binding = (
1041            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1042        )
1043
1044        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1045        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1046
1047        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1048        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1049
1050    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1051        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1052        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1053        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1054        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1055        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1056        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1057        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1058        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1059        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1060        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1061
1062        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1063        if cache is None:
1064            cache_str = ""
1065        elif cache is True:
1066            cache_str = " CACHE"
1067        else:
1068            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1069
1070        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1071        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1072
1073        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1074
1075    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1076        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1077        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1078        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1079        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1080
1081    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1082        style = expression.args.get("style")
1083        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1084        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1085
1086    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1087        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1088        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1089
1090    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1091        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1092        if with_:
1093            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1094        return sql
1095
1096    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1097        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1098        recursive = (
1099            "RECURSIVE "
1100            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1101            else ""
1102        )
1103
1104        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1105
1106    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1107        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1108
1109        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1110        if materialized is False:
1111            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1112        elif materialized:
1113            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1114
1115        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1116
1117    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1118        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1119        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1120        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1121
1122        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1123            columns = ""
1124            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1125
1126        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1127            alias = self._next_name()
1128
1129        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1130
1131    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1133        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1134            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1135        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1136
1137    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1138        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1139        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1140            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1141        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1142
1143    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1144        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1146            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1147        return this
1148
1149    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1151        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1152
1153        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1154            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1155            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1156        else:
1157            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1158            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1159
1160        if escape:
1161            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1162            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1163        else:
1164            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1165            escape_sql = ""
1166
1167        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1168            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1169
1170        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1171
1172    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1173        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1174        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1175
1176    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1178        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1179        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1180        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1181
1182    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1183        type_value = expression.this
1184
1185        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1186            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1187        else:
1188            type_sql = (
1189                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1190                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1191                else type_value
1192            )
1193
1194        nested = ""
1195        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1196        values = ""
1197
1198        if interior:
1199            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1200                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1201                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1202                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1203                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1204                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1205            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1206                nested = f" {interior}"
1207            else:
1208                nested = f"({interior})"
1209
1210        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1211        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1212            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1213            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1214        ):
1215            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1216
1217        return type_sql
1218
1219    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1220        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1221        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1222        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1223        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1224
1225    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1227        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1228        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1229        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1230        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1231        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1232        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1233        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1234        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1235        if self.RETURNING_END:
1236            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1237        else:
1238            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1239        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1240
1241    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1243        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1244        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1245        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1246        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1247        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1248        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1249        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1250        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1251        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1252        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1253        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1254        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1255
1256    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1257        return self.set_operations(expression)
1258
1259    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1260        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1261
1262    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1263        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1264        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1265        count = expression.args.get("count")
1266        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1267        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1268            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1269        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1270        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1271
1272    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1273        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1274            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1275            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1276            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1277
1278        agg = expression.this
1279        agg_arg = agg.this
1280        cond = expression.expression.this
1281        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1282        return self.sql(agg)
1283
1284    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1285        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1286            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1287            return ""
1288
1289        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1290
1291    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1292        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1293        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1294        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1295        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1296        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1297        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1298        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1299        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1300        if include:
1301            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1302        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1303        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1304        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1305        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1306        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1307        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1308
1309        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1310
1311    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1312        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1313        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1314        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1315        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1316        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1317        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1318        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1319
1320        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1321
1322        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1323        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1324
1325    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1326        text = expression.name
1327        lower = text.lower()
1328        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1329        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1330        if (
1331            expression.quoted
1332            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1333            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1334            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1335        ):
1336            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1337        return text
1338
1339    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1340        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1341        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1342            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1343
1344        return text
1345
1346    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1347        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1348        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1349            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1350        return text
1351
1352    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1353        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1354        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1355        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1356        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1357        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1358
1359    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1360        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1361        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1362
1363    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1364        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1365
1366    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1367        root_properties = []
1368        with_properties = []
1369
1370        for p in expression.expressions:
1371            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1372            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1373                with_properties.append(p)
1374            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1375                root_properties.append(p)
1376
1377        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1378        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1379
1380        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1381            with_props = " " + with_props
1382
1383        return root_props + with_props
1384
1385    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1386        if properties.expressions:
1387            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1388        return ""
1389
1390    def properties(
1391        self,
1392        properties: exp.Properties,
1393        prefix: str = "",
1394        sep: str = ", ",
1395        suffix: str = "",
1396        wrapped: bool = True,
1397    ) -> str:
1398        if properties.expressions:
1399            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1400            if expressions:
1401                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1402                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1403        return ""
1404
1405    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1406        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1407
1408    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1409        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1410        for p in properties.expressions:
1411            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1412            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1413                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1414            else:
1415                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1416
1417        return properties_locs
1418
1419    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1420        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1421            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1422        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1423
1424    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1425        property_cls = expression.__class__
1426        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1427            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1428
1429        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1430        if not property_name:
1431            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1432
1433        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1434
1435    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1436        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1437            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1438            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1439
1440            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1441            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1442                like = f"({like})"
1443
1444            return like
1445
1446        if expression.expressions:
1447            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1448
1449        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1450        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1451
1452    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1453        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1454        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1455        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1456
1457    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1458        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1459        local = expression.args.get("local")
1460        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1461        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1462        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1463        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1464        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1465
1466    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1467        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1468        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1469        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1470
1471    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1472        if expression.args.get("default"):
1473            property = "DEFAULT"
1474        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1475            property = "ON"
1476        else:
1477            property = "OFF"
1478        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1479
1480    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1481        if expression.args.get("no"):
1482            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1483        if expression.args.get("default"):
1484            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1485
1486        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1487        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1488
1489    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1490        default = expression.args.get("default")
1491        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1492        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1493        if default or minimum or maximum:
1494            if default:
1495                prop = "DEFAULT"
1496            elif minimum:
1497                prop = "MINIMUM"
1498            else:
1499                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1500            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1501        units = expression.args.get("units")
1502        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1503        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1504
1505    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1506        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1507        always = expression.args.get("always")
1508        default = expression.args.get("default")
1509        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1510        never = expression.args.get("never")
1511
1512        if autotemp is not None:
1513            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1514        elif always:
1515            prop = "ALWAYS"
1516        elif default:
1517            prop = "DEFAULT"
1518        elif manual:
1519            prop = "MANUAL"
1520        elif never:
1521            prop = "NEVER"
1522        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1523
1524    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1525        no = expression.args.get("no")
1526        no = " NO" if no else ""
1527        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1528        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1529        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1530        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1531        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1532
1533    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1534        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1535            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1536        if expression.this:
1537            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1538            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1539            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1540
1541        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1542        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1543        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1544
1545    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1547
1548        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1549        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1550            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1551        else:
1552            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1553
1554        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1555
1556    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1557        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1558        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1559        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1560        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1561        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1562        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1563        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1564
1565    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1566        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1567        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1568        statistics_sql = ""
1569        if statistics is not None:
1570            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1571        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1572
1573    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1575        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1576        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1577        data_consistency = (
1578            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1579        )
1580        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1581        retention_period = (
1582            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1583        )
1584
1585        if this:
1586            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1587        else:
1588            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1589
1590        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1591
1592        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1593
1594    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1595        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1596        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1597
1598        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1599            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1600        else:
1601            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1602
1603        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1604        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1605        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1606        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1607        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1608        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1609        if is_function:
1610            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1611        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1612
1613        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1614        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1615        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1616        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1617        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1618        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1619        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1620        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1621
1622        if self.RETURNING_END:
1623            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1624        else:
1625            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1626
1627        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1628        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1629
1630    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1631        return self.set_operations(expression)
1632
1633    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1634        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1635
1636    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1637        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1638
1639    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1640        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1641        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1643        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1644        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1645
1646    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1647        return expression.name
1648
1649    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1650        return expression.name
1651
1652    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1653        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1654
1655        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1656        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1657
1658        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1659        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1660        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1661
1662        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1663        if expressions:
1664            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1665            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1666
1667        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1668
1669    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1670        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1671
1672    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1673        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1674        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1675        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1676        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1677        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1678        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1679        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1680        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1681        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1682        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1683        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1684        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1685        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1686
1687    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1688        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1689
1690    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1691        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1692        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1693        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1694        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1695
1696    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1698        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1699        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1700        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1701
1702    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1703        return ".".join(
1704            self.sql(part)
1705            for part in (
1706                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1707                expression.args.get("db"),
1708                expression.args.get("this"),
1709            )
1710            if part is not None
1711        )
1712
1713    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1714        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1715        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1716        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1717        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1718        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1719        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1720        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1721        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1722        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1723        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1724        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1725        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1726        joins = self.indent(
1727            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1728        )
1729        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1730
1731        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1732        if file_format:
1733            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1734            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1735            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1736
1737        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1738        if ordinality:
1739            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1740            alias = ""
1741
1742        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1743        if when:
1744            table = f"{table} {when}"
1745
1746        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1747
1748    def tablesample_sql(
1749        self,
1750        expression: exp.TableSample,
1751        sep: str = " AS ",
1752        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1753    ) -> str:
1754        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1755            table = expression.this.copy()
1756            table.set("alias", None)
1757            this = self.sql(table)
1758            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1759        else:
1760            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1761            alias = ""
1762
1763        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1764        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1765        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1766        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1767        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1768        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1769        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1770        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1771        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1772
1773        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1774        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1775            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1776
1777        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1778        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1779            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1780
1781        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1782        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1783            expr = f"({expr})"
1784
1785        return (
1786            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1787        )
1788
1789    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1790        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1791
1792        if expression.this:
1793            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1794            if not expressions:
1795                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1796
1797            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1798            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1799            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1800            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1801            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1802
1803        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1804        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1805        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1806        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1807        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1808        if include_nulls is not None:
1809            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1810        else:
1811            nulls = ""
1812        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1813
1814    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1815        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1816        kind = expression.text("kind")
1817        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1818        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1819
1820    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1821        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1822
1823    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1825        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1826        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1827        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1828        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1829        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1830        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1831        if self.RETURNING_END:
1832            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1833        else:
1834            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1835        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1837
1838    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1839        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1840
1841        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1842        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1843            args = self.expressions(expression)
1844            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1845            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1846            values = (
1847                f"({values})"
1848                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1849                else values
1850            )
1851            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1852
1853        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1854        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1855        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1856
1857        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1858
1859        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1860            row = tup.expressions
1861
1862            if i == 0 and column_names:
1863                row = [
1864                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1865                ]
1866
1867            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1868
1869        if self.pretty:
1870            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1871            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1872            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1873            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1874            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1875
1876        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1877        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1878        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1879
1880    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1881        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1882
1883    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1884        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1885        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1886        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1887
1888    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1889        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1890
1891    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1892        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1893        if group_by_all is True:
1894            modifier = " ALL"
1895        elif group_by_all is False:
1896            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1897        else:
1898            modifier = ""
1899
1900        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1901
1902        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1903        grouping_sets = (
1904            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1905        )
1906
1907        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1908        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1909            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1910        else:
1911            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1912            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1913
1914        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1915        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1916            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1917        else:
1918            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1919            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1920
1921        groupings = csv(
1922            grouping_sets,
1923            cube_sql,
1924            rollup_sql,
1925            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1926            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1927        )
1928
1929        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1930            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1931
1932        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1933
1934    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1935        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1936        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1937
1938    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1939        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1940        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1941        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1942        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1943        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1944        return start + connect
1945
1946    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1947        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1948
1949    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1950        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1951            side = None
1952        else:
1953            side = expression.side
1954
1955        op_sql = " ".join(
1956            op
1957            for op in (
1958                expression.method,
1959                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1960                side,
1961                expression.kind,
1962                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1963            )
1964            if op
1965        )
1966        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1967        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1968        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1969        using = expression.args.get("using")
1970
1971        if not on_sql and using:
1972            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1973
1974        this = expression.this
1975        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1976
1977        if on_sql:
1978            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1979            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1980            if using:
1981                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1982            else:
1983                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1984        elif not op_sql:
1985            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1986                return f" {this_sql}"
1987
1988            return f", {this_sql}"
1989
1990        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1991            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1992
1993        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1994
1995    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1996        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1997        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1998        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1999
2000    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2001        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2002
2003        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2004        if cross_apply is True:
2005            op = "INNER JOIN "
2006        elif cross_apply is False:
2007            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2008        else:
2009            op = ""
2010
2011        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2012
2013    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2015
2016        if expression.args.get("view"):
2017            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2018            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2019            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2020            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2021            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2022            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2023
2024        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2025        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2026        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2027
2028    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030
2031        args = [
2032            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2033            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2034            if e
2035        ]
2036
2037        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2038        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2039        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2040        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2041
2042        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2043
2044    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2046        value = expression.expression
2047        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2048        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2049        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2050        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2051
2052    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2053        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2054        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2055        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2056        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2057        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2058        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2059        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2060        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2061
2062    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2063        expressions = (
2064            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2065        )
2066        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2067        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2068
2069    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2070        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2071
2072    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2073        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2074            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2075            return ""
2076
2077        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2078        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2079        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2080        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2081
2082        if wait is not None:
2083            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2084                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2085            else:
2086                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2087
2088        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2089
2090    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2091        text = expression.this or ""
2092        if expression.is_string:
2093            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2094        return text
2095
2096    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2097        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2098            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2099            text = "".join(
2100                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2101            )
2102
2103        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2104            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2105        )
2106
2107    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2108        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2109        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2110        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2111        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2112        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2113        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2114        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2115        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2116        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2117        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2118        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2119
2120    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2121        return "NULL"
2122
2123    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2124        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2125
2126    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2127        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2128        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2129        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2130        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2131        interpolated_values = [
2132            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2133            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2134        ]
2135        interpolate = (
2136            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2137        )
2138        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2139
2140    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2141        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2142        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2143        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2144        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2145        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2146        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2147        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2148
2149    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2150        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2151
2152    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2153        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2154
2155    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2156        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2157
2158    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2159        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2160        asc = not desc
2161
2162        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2163        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2164        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2165        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2166        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2167
2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2169
2170        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2171        nulls_sort_change = ""
2172        if nulls_first and (
2173            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2174        ):
2175            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2176        elif (
2177            nulls_last
2178            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2179            and not nulls_are_last
2180        ):
2181            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2182
2183        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2184        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2185            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2186            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2187                self.unsupported(
2188                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2189                )
2190                nulls_sort_change = ""
2191            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2192                if expression.this.is_int:
2193                    self.unsupported(
2194                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2195                    )
2196                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2197                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2198                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2199                nulls_sort_change = ""
2200
2201        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2202        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2203
2204        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2205
2206    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2207        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2208        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2209
2210        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2211
2212        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2213
2214    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2215        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2216        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2217        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2218        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2219        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2220        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2221        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2222        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2223        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2224        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2225        definition_sqls = [
2226            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2227            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2228        ]
2229        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2230        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2231        body = "".join(
2232            (
2233                partition,
2234                order,
2235                measures,
2236                rows,
2237                after,
2238                pattern,
2239                define,
2240            )
2241        )
2242        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2243        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2244        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2245
2246    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2247        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2248
2249        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2250            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2251        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2252            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2253
2254        return csv(
2255            *sqls,
2256            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2257            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2258            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2259            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2260            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2261            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2262            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2263            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2264            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2265            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2266            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2267            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2268            self.options_modifier(expression),
2269            sep="",
2270        )
2271
2272    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2273        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2274        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2275
2276    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2277        return ""
2278
2279    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2280        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2281    ) -> t.List[str]:
2282        return [
2283            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2284            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2285        ]
2286
2287    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2288        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2289        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2290        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2291
2292    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2293        into = expression.args.get("into")
2294        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2295            into.pop()
2296
2297        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2298        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2299        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2300        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2301
2302        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2303        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2304            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2305            limit.pop()
2306        else:
2307            top = ""
2308
2309        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2310
2311        if kind:
2312            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2313                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2314            else:
2315                if kind == "STRUCT":
2316                    expressions = self.expressions(
2317                        sqls=[
2318                            self.sql(
2319                                exp.Struct(
2320                                    expressions=[
2321                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2322                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2323                                        else e
2324                                        for e in expression.expressions
2325                                    ]
2326                                )
2327                            )
2328                        ]
2329                    )
2330                kind = ""
2331
2332        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2333        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2334        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2335        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2336        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2337            expression,
2338            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2339            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2340            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2341        )
2342
2343        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2344
2345        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2346            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2347                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2348            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2349                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2350            else:
2351                table_kind = ""
2352            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2353
2354        return sql
2355
2356    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2358        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2359        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2360
2361    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2362        if expression.expressions:
2363            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2364        return ""
2365
2366    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2367        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2368        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2369        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2370        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2371        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2372        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2373        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2374
2375    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2377        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2378
2379    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2380        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2381        kind = expression.text("kind")
2382        if kind:
2383            kind = f"{kind}."
2384        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2385
2386    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2387        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2388
2389    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2390        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2391        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2392
2393        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2394        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2395
2396        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2397        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2398
2399    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2400        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2401        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2402
2403    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2404        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2405            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2406            order = expression.args.get("order")
2407
2408            if limit or order:
2409                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2410
2411                if limit:
2412                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2413                if order:
2414                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2415                return self.sql(select)
2416
2417        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2418        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2419
2420        while stack:
2421            node = stack.pop()
2422
2423            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2424                stack.append(node.expression)
2425                stack.append(
2426                    self.maybe_comment(
2427                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2428                        comments=node.comments,
2429                        separated=True,
2430                    )
2431                )
2432                stack.append(node.this)
2433            else:
2434                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2435
2436        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2437        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2438        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2439
2440    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2441        return self.set_operations(expression)
2442
2443    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2444        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2445        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2446        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2447        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2448
2449    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2450        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2451
2452        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2453        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2454
2455        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2456            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2457                alias.append("columns", offset)
2458
2459        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2460            columns = alias.columns
2461            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2462        else:
2463            alias = self.sql(alias)
2464
2465        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2466        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2467            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2468        else:
2469            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2470                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2471            elif offset:
2472                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2473            else:
2474                suffix = alias
2475
2476        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2477
2478    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2479        return ""
2480
2481    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2482        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2483        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2484
2485    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2487        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2488        order = expression.args.get("order")
2489        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2490        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2491        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2492        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2493
2494        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2495
2496        first = expression.args.get("first")
2497        if first is None:
2498            first = ""
2499        else:
2500            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2501
2502        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2503            return f"{this} {alias}"
2504
2505        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2506        return f"{this} ({args})"
2507
2508    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2509        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2510        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2511
2512    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2513        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2514        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2515        end = (
2516            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2517            or "CURRENT ROW"
2518        )
2519        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2520
2521    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2523        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2524        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2525
2526    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2528        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2529        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2530        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2531
2532    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2533        return apply_index_offset(
2534            expression.this,
2535            expression.expressions,
2536            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2537        )
2538
2539    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2540        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2541        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2542        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2543
2544    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2545        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2546
2547    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2549        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2550            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2551                this = self.wrap(this)
2552            return f"ANY{this}"
2553        return f"ANY {this}"
2554
2555    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2556        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2557
2558    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2560        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2561
2562        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2563            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2564            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2565
2566        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2567
2568        if default:
2569            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2570
2571        statements.append("END")
2572
2573        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2574            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2575
2576        return " ".join(statements)
2577
2578    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2581        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2582
2583    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2584        order = expression.args.get("order")
2585        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2586        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2587
2588    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2589        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2590        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2591        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2592
2593    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2594        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2595
2596        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2597            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2598        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2599            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2600        else:
2601            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2602
2603    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2604        args = expression.expressions
2605        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2606            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2607
2608        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2609            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2610
2611        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2612            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2613
2614        return args
2615
2616    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2617        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2618
2619        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2620        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2621            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2622
2623        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2624
2625    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2626        return self.func(
2627            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2628        )
2629
2630    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2631        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2632        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2633
2634    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2635        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2636        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2637        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2638        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2639        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2640        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2641        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2642        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2643
2644    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2645        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2646        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2647        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2648        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2649
2650    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2651        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2652
2653    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2654        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2655        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2656        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2657
2658    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2659        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2660
2661    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2662        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2663        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2664            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2665
2666        return path
2667
2668    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2669        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2670            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2671            if not callable(transform):
2672                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2673                return ""
2674
2675            return transform(self, expression)
2676
2677        if isinstance(expression, int):
2678            return str(expression)
2679
2680        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2681            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2682            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2683        else:
2684            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2685            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2686
2687        return escaped
2688
2689    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2690        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2691
2692    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2693        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2694        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2695
2696        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2697        if unique_keys is not None:
2698            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2699        else:
2700            unique_keys = ""
2701
2702        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2703        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2704        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2705        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2706
2707        return self.func(
2708            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2709            *expression.expressions,
2710            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2711        )
2712
2713    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2714        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2715
2716    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2717        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2718        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2719        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2720        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2721        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2722        return self.func(
2723            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2724        )
2725
2726    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2728        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2729        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2730        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2731        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2732        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2733        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2734        return self.func(
2735            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2736            this,
2737            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2738        )
2739
2740    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2741        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2742        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2743        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2744
2745        if nested_schema:
2746            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2747
2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2749        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2750        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2751        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2752
2753    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2754        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2755
2756    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2757        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2758        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2759        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2760        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2761        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2762        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2763        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2764        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2765        return self.func(
2766            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2767        )
2768
2769    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2771        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2772        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2773        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2774        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2775        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2776
2777    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2779        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2780        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2781        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2782        with_ = (
2783            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2784            if expressions
2785            else ""
2786        )
2787        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2788
2789    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2790        query = expression.args.get("query")
2791        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2792        field = expression.args.get("field")
2793        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2794
2795        if query:
2796            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2797        elif unnest:
2798            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2799        elif field:
2800            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2801        else:
2802            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2803
2804        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2805
2806    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2807        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2808
2809    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2810        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2811        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2812            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2813        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2814
2815        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2816            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2817            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2818
2819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2820        if this:
2821            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2822            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2823
2824        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2825
2826    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2827        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2828
2829    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2831        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2832        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2833        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2834        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2835        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2836
2837    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2838        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2839
2840    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2841        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2842        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2843
2844    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2845        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2846        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2847        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2848        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2849
2850    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2851        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2852
2853    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2854        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2855        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2856        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2857
2858    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2859        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2860        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2861
2862        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2863            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2864        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2865            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2866
2867        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2868
2869    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2870        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2871
2872    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2874        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2875        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2876
2877    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2879        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2880        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2881
2882    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2884        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2885        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2886
2887    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2888        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2889
2890    def and_sql(
2891        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2892    ) -> str:
2893        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2894
2895    def or_sql(
2896        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2897    ) -> str:
2898        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2899
2900    def xor_sql(
2901        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2902    ) -> str:
2903        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2904
2905    def connector_sql(
2906        self,
2907        expression: exp.Connector,
2908        op: str,
2909        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2910    ) -> str:
2911        if stack is not None:
2912            if expression.expressions:
2913                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2914            else:
2915                stack.append(expression.right)
2916                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2917                    for comment in expression.comments:
2918                        if comment:
2919                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2920                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2921            return op
2922
2923        stack = [expression]
2924        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2925        ops = set()
2926
2927        while stack:
2928            node = stack.pop()
2929            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2930                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2931            else:
2932                sql = self.sql(node)
2933                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2934                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2935                else:
2936                    sqls.append(sql)
2937
2938        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2939        return sep.join(sqls)
2940
2941    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2942        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2943
2944    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2945        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2946
2947    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2948        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2949
2950    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2951        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2952
2953    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2954        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2955
2956    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2957        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2958
2959    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2960        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2961        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2962        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2963        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2964        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2965        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2966        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2967
2968    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2969        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2970        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2971
2972    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2973        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2974
2975    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2976        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2977            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2978        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2979
2980    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2981        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2982
2983    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2985        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2986        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2987        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2988        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2989        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2990
2991    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2993        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2994        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2995        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2996        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2997        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2998        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2999        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3000        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3001
3002    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3003        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3004        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3005        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3006        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3007
3008        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3009            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3010
3011        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3012
3013    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3014        return "BEGIN"
3015
3016    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3017        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3018        if chain is not None:
3019            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3020
3021        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3022
3023    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3024        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3025        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3026        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3027
3028    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3030
3031        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3032        if dtype:
3033            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3034            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3035            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3036            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3037            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3038
3039        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3040        if default:
3041            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3042
3043        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3044        if comment:
3045            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3046
3047        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3048        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3049
3050        if not drop and not allow_null:
3051            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3052
3053        if allow_null is not None:
3054            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3055            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3056
3057        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3058
3059    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3061        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3062            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3063        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3064
3065    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3066        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3067        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3068        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3069        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3070        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3071
3072    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3073        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3074            # Remove db from tables
3075            expression = expression.transform(
3076                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3077            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3079        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3080
3081    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3082        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3083        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3084        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3085        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3086
3087    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3088        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3089        return f"SET {exprs}"
3090
3091    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3092        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3093
3094        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3095            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3096        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3097            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3098        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3099            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3100        else:
3101            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3102
3103        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3104        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3105        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3106        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3107        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3108        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3109        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3110
3111    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3112        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3113            return self.expressions(
3114                expression,
3115                key="actions",
3116                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3117            )
3118        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3119
3120    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3121        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3122        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3123        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3124
3125    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3126        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3127
3128    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3129        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3130
3131        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3132            case = exp.case()
3133            for arg in expression.expressions:
3134                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3135            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3136
3137        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3138
3139        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3140        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3141        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3142
3143    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3144        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3145
3146    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3147        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3148
3149    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3150        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3151        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3152        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3153        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3154
3155    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3156        return self.sql(
3157            exp.Cast(
3158                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3159                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3160            )
3161        )
3162
3163    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3164        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3165            return self.func(
3166                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3167            )
3168        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3169
3170    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3171        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3172
3173        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3174            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3175
3176        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3177            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3178                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3179
3180        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3181            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3182                return self.sql(
3183                    exp.cast(
3184                        l / r,
3185                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3186                    )
3187                )
3188
3189        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3190
3191    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3192        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3193
3194    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3195        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3196
3197    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3198        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3199
3200    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3201        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3202
3203    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3204        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3205
3206    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3207        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3208
3209    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3210        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3211
3212    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3213        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3214
3215    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3216        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3217
3218    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3219        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3220
3221    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3222        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3223
3224    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3225        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3226            return self.sql(
3227                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3228            )
3229        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3230
3231    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3232        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3233
3234    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3235        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3236
3237    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3239
3240    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3241        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3242
3243    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3245
3246    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3248
3249    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3251
3252    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3254
3255    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3257
3258    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3260
3261    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3263
3264    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3266
3267    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3268        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3269
3270    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3271        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3272            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3273            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3274
3275        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3276
3277    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3278        this = expression.this
3279        expr = expression.expression
3280
3281        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3282            this, expr = expr, this
3283        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3284            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3285                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3286
3287            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3288
3289        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3290
3291    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3292        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3293        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3295        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3296        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3297
3298    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3299        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3300        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3301
3302    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3303        args = []
3304
3305        for key in expression.arg_types:
3306            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3307
3308            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3309                for value in arg_value:
3310                    args.append(value)
3311            elif arg_value is not None:
3312                args.append(arg_value)
3313
3314        if self.normalize_functions:
3315            name = expression.sql_name()
3316        else:
3317            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3318
3319        return self.func(name, *args)
3320
3321    def func(
3322        self,
3323        name: str,
3324        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3325        prefix: str = "(",
3326        suffix: str = ")",
3327    ) -> str:
3328        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3329
3330    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3331        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3332        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3333            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3334        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3335
3336    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3337        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3338
3339    def format_time(
3340        self,
3341        expression: exp.Expression,
3342        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3343        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3344    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3345        return format_time(
3346            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3347            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3348            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3349        )
3350
3351    def expressions(
3352        self,
3353        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3354        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3355        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3356        flat: bool = False,
3357        indent: bool = True,
3358        skip_first: bool = False,
3359        skip_last: bool = False,
3360        sep: str = ", ",
3361        prefix: str = "",
3362        dynamic: bool = False,
3363        new_line: bool = False,
3364    ) -> str:
3365        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3366
3367        if not expressions:
3368            return ""
3369
3370        if flat:
3371            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3372
3373        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3374
3375        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3376        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3377            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3378
3379        result_sqls = []
3380        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3381            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3382            if not sql:
3383                continue
3384
3385            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3386
3387            if self.pretty:
3388                if self.leading_comma:
3389                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3390                else:
3391                    result_sqls.append(
3392                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3393                    )
3394            else:
3395                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3396
3397        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3398            if new_line:
3399                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3400                result_sqls.append("")
3401            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3402        else:
3403            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3404        return (
3405            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3406            if indent
3407            else result_sql
3408        )
3409
3410    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3411        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3412        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3413        if flat:
3414            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3415        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3416
3417    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3418        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3419        if not property_name:
3420            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3421        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3422
3423    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3424        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3425
3426    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3427        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3428
3429    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3431        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3432        expressions = (
3433            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3434        )
3435        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3436
3437    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3438        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3439        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3440        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3441
3442    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3443        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3444
3445    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3446        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3447        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3448        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3449        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3450
3451        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3452        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3453            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3454            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3455            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3456            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3457        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3458            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3459                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3460            else:
3461                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3462        else:
3463            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3464        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3465
3466    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3467        table = expression.this
3468        table_alias = ""
3469
3470        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3471        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3472            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3473            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3474
3475        this = self.sql(table)
3476        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3477        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3479        sep = self.sep()
3480
3481        return self.prepend_ctes(
3482            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3483        )
3484
3485    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3486        if expression.args.get("format"):
3487            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3488
3489        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3490
3491    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3492        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3493            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3494            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3495
3496        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3497        if not fmt:
3498            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3499            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3500
3501        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3502
3503    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3505        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3506        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3507        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3508        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3509
3510    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3512        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3513        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3514        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3515
3516    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3517        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3518
3519    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3520        return ""
3521
3522    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3523        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3524        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3525        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3526        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3527        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3528
3529    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3530        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3531        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3532
3533        if having:
3534            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3535
3536        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3537
3538    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3539        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3540        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3541        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3542        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3543        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3544        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3545        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3546        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3547        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3548        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3549        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3550        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3551        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3552
3553    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3554        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3555        if key_block_size:
3556            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3557
3558        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3559        if using:
3560            return f"USING {using}"
3561
3562        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3563        if parser:
3564            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3565
3566        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3567        if comment:
3568            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3569
3570        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3571        if visible is not None:
3572            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3573
3574        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3575        if engine_attr:
3576            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3577
3578        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3579        if secondary_engine_attr:
3580            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3581
3582        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3583        return ""
3584
3585    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3586        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3587        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3588
3589    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3590        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3591        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3592        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3593        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3594        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3595        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3596        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3597        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3598        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3599        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3600        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3601
3602    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3603        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3604            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3605
3606        case = exp.Case().when(
3607            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3608            expression.args["true"],
3609            copy=False,
3610        )
3611        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3612        if else_cond:
3613            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3614
3615        return self.sql(case)
3616
3617    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3618        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3619        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3620        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3621        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3622        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3623        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3624
3625    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3626        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3627
3628    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3629        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3630
3631    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3632        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3633        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3634        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3635        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3636        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3637        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3638
3639    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3641        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3642        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3643
3644    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3646        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3647        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3648
3649    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3650        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3651
3652    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3653        arg = expression.this
3654        if not arg.type:
3655            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3656
3657            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3658
3659        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3660            return self.sql(arg)
3661
3662        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3663        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3664
3665    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3666        this = expression.this
3667        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3668            return self.sql(this)
3669
3670        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3671
3672    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3673        this = expression.this
3674        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3675            return self.sql(this)
3676
3677        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3678
3679    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3680        this = expression.this
3681        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3682
3683        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3684            return self.sql(
3685                exp.cast(
3686                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3687                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3688                )
3689            )
3690
3691        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3692            return self.sql(this)
3693
3694        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3695
3696    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3697        return self.sql(
3698            exp.func(
3699                "DATEDIFF",
3700                expression.this,
3701                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3702                "day",
3703            )
3704        )
3705
3706    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3707        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3708            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3709
3710        unit = expression.text("unit")
3711        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3712            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3713
3714        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3715
3716    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3717        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3718
3719        return self.func(
3720            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3721        )
3722
3723    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3724        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3725            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3726            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3727            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3728            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3729
3730        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3731
3732        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3733        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3734            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3735
3736        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3737
3738    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3739        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3740        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3741
3742    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3743        expression.set(
3744            "expressions",
3745            [
3746                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3747                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3748                else e
3749                for e in expression.expressions
3750            ],
3751        )
3752
3753        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3754
3755    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3756        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3757        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3758
3759        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3760
3761    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3762        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3763        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3764
3765        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3766
3767        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3768        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3769
3770        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3771        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3772
3773        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3774        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3775
3776        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3777        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3778
3779        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3780
3781    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3782    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3783    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3784        to = expression.this
3785        value = expression.expression
3786        style = expression.args.get("style")
3787        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3788        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3789
3790        if not to or not value:
3791            return ""
3792
3793        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3794        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3795            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3796
3797        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3798        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3799
3800        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3801        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3802            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3803
3804            style_value = style.name
3805            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3806            if not converted_style:
3807                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3808
3809            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3810
3811            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3812                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3813            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3814                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3815            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3816                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3817            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3818                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3819
3820        if not transformed:
3821            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3822
3823        return self.sql(transformed)
3824
3825    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3826        this = expression.this
3827        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3828            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3829            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3830
3831        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3832            return f".{this}"
3833
3834        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3835        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3836
3837    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3838        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3839        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3840
3841    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3842        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3843            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3844
3845            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3846
3847        return expression
3848
3849    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3850        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3851            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3852            mods = sorted(
3853                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3854                key=lambda x: 0
3855                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3856                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3857            )
3858
3859            if mods:
3860                mod = mods[0]
3861                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3862                this.meta["inline"] = True
3863                mod.this.replace(this)
3864                return self.sql(expression.this)
3865
3866            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3867
3868            if agg_func:
3869                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3870
3871        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3872
3873    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3874        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3875        if self.pretty:
3876            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3877        return string
3878
3879    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3880        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3881
3882        if expression.expressions:
3883            upper = option.upper()
3884
3885            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3886            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3887
3888            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3889            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3890            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3891            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3892
3893        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3894
3895        if not value:
3896            return option
3897
3898        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3899
3900        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3901
3902    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3903        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3904        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3905            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3906            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3907            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3908        else:
3909            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3910            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3911            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3912
3913        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3914        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3915
3916        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3917        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3918
3919        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3920        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3921
3922        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3923        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3924
3925        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3926
3927    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3929        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3930
3931        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3932        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3933        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3934        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3935
3936        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3937        params = self.expressions(
3938            expression,
3939            key="params",
3940            sep=sep,
3941            new_line=True,
3942            skip_last=True,
3943            skip_first=True,
3944            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3945        )
3946
3947        if params:
3948            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3949                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3950            elif not self.pretty:
3951                params = f" {params}"
3952
3953        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3954
3955    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3956        return ""
3957
3958    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3959        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3960        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3961        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3962        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3963        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3964
3965        if filter_col or retention_period:
3966            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3967
3968        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3969
3970    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3971        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3972    ) -> str:
3973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3974        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3975        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3976        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3977
3978    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3980        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3981        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  96        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  97        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  98        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  99        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 100        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 101        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 102        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 103        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 104        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 107        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 111            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 112        ),
 113        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 115        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 116        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 117        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 118        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 119        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 120        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 121        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 122        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 123        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 130        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 132            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 133        ),
 134        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 136        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 137        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 138        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 139        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 141        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 142        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 143        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 144        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 145        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 146        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.args.get("zone")),
 149        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 151        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 152        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 153        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 154        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 155        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 156        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 158        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 160    }
 161
 162    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 163    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 164    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 165
 166    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 167    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 168    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 169
 170    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 171    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 174    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 175
 176    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 177    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 178
 179    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 180    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 181
 182    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 183    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 184
 185    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 186    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 187
 188    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 189    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 190
 191    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 192    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 193
 194    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 195    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 196
 197    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 198    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 199
 200    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 201    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 202
 203    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 204    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 205
 206    # Whether join hints should be generated
 207    JOIN_HINTS = True
 208
 209    # Whether table hints should be generated
 210    TABLE_HINTS = True
 211
 212    # Whether query hints should be generated
 213    QUERY_HINTS = True
 214
 215    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 216    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 217
 218    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 219    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 220
 221    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 222    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 223
 224    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 225    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 226
 227    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 228    RETURNING_END = True
 229
 230    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 231    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 232
 233    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 234    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 235
 236    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 237    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 238
 239    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 240    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 241
 242    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 243    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 244    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 245    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 246
 247    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 248    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 249
 250    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 251    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 252
 253    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 254    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 255
 256    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 257    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 258
 259    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 260    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 261
 262    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 263    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 264
 265    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 266    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 267
 268    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 270
 271    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 273
 274    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 275    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 276
 277    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 278    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 279
 280    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 281    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 282
 283    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 284    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 285
 286    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 287    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 288
 289    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 290    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 291
 292    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 293    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 294
 295    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 296    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 297
 298    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 299    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 300
 301    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 302    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 303
 304    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 305    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 306
 307    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 308    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 309
 310    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 311    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 312
 313    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 314    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 315
 316    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 317    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 318
 319    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 320    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 321
 322    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 323    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 324    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 325
 326    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 327    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 328
 329    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 330    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 331
 332    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 333    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 334
 335    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 336    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 337
 338    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 339    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 340
 341    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 342    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 343
 344    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 345    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 346    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 347    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 350    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 351
 352    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 353    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 354
 355    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 356    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 357
 358    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 359    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 360
 361    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 363
 364    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 365    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 366
 367    # The HEX function name
 368    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 369
 370    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 371    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 372
 373    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 374    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 375
 376    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 377        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 378        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 379        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 380        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 381        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 382        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 383        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 384        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 385        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 386        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 387    }
 388
 389    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 390        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 391        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 392        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 393        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 394        "DAYS": "DAY",
 395        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 396        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 397        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 398        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 399    }
 400
 401    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 402        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 403        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 404        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 405        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 406        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 407            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 408            if e.args.get("windows")
 409            else ""
 410        ),
 411    }
 412
 413    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 414
 415    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 416
 417    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 418    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 419
 420    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 421        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 423        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 427        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 429        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 434        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 436        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 443        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 444        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 445        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 446        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 447        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 448        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 450        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 452        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 453        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 458        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 459        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 461        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 462        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 464        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 467        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 470        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 478        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 482        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 484        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 485        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 488        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 491        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 493        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 496        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 499        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 500        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501    }
 502
 503    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 504    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 505
 506    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 507    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 508        exp.Create,
 509        exp.Delete,
 510        exp.Drop,
 511        exp.From,
 512        exp.Insert,
 513        exp.Join,
 514        exp.Select,
 515        exp.SetOperation,
 516        exp.Update,
 517        exp.Where,
 518        exp.With,
 519    )
 520
 521    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 522    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 523        exp.Binary,
 524        exp.SetOperation,
 525    )
 526
 527    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 528    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 529        exp.Column,
 530        exp.Literal,
 531        exp.Neg,
 532        exp.Paren,
 533    )
 534
 535    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 536        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 537        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 538        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 539        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 540    }
 541
 542    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 543    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 544
 545    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 546
 547    __slots__ = (
 548        "pretty",
 549        "identify",
 550        "normalize",
 551        "pad",
 552        "_indent",
 553        "normalize_functions",
 554        "unsupported_level",
 555        "max_unsupported",
 556        "leading_comma",
 557        "max_text_width",
 558        "comments",
 559        "dialect",
 560        "unsupported_messages",
 561        "_escaped_quote_end",
 562        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 563        "_next_name",
 564    )
 565
 566    def __init__(
 567        self,
 568        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 569        identify: str | bool = False,
 570        normalize: bool = False,
 571        pad: int = 2,
 572        indent: int = 2,
 573        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 574        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 575        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 576        leading_comma: bool = False,
 577        max_text_width: int = 80,
 578        comments: bool = True,
 579        dialect: DialectType = None,
 580    ):
 581        import sqlglot
 582        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 583
 584        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 585        self.identify = identify
 586        self.normalize = normalize
 587        self.pad = pad
 588        self._indent = indent
 589        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 590        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 591        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 592        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 593        self.comments = comments
 594        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 595
 596        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 597        self.normalize_functions = (
 598            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 599        )
 600
 601        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 602        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 603            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 604        )
 605        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 606            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 607        )
 608
 609        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 610
 611    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 612        """
 613        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 614
 615        Args:
 616            expression: The syntax tree.
 617            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 618                it is safer to copy.
 619
 620        Returns:
 621            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 622        """
 623        if copy:
 624            expression = expression.copy()
 625
 626        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 627
 628        self.unsupported_messages = []
 629        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 630
 631        if self.pretty:
 632            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 633
 634        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 635            return sql
 636
 637        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 638            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 639                logger.warning(msg)
 640        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 641            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 642
 643        return sql
 644
 645    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 646        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 647        if (
 648            not expression.parent
 649            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 650            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 651        ):
 652            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 653
 654            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 655
 656        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 657            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 658
 659            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 660
 661        return expression
 662
 663    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 664        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 665            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 666        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 667
 668    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 669        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 670
 671    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 672        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 673
 674    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 675        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 676        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 677        return comment
 678
 679    def maybe_comment(
 680        self,
 681        sql: str,
 682        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 683        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 684        separated: bool = False,
 685    ) -> str:
 686        comments = (
 687            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 688            if self.comments
 689            else None
 690        )
 691
 692        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 693            return sql
 694
 695        comments_sql = " ".join(
 696            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 697        )
 698
 699        if not comments_sql:
 700            return sql
 701
 702        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 703
 704        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 705            return (
 706                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 707                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 708                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 709            )
 710
 711        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 712
 713    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 714        this_sql = (
 715            self.sql(expression)
 716            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 717            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 718        )
 719        if not this_sql:
 720            return "()"
 721
 722        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 723        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 724
 725    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 726        original = self.identify
 727        self.identify = False
 728        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 729        self.identify = original
 730        return result
 731
 732    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 733        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 734            return name.upper()
 735        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 736            return name.lower()
 737        return name
 738
 739    def indent(
 740        self,
 741        sql: str,
 742        level: int = 0,
 743        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 744        skip_first: bool = False,
 745        skip_last: bool = False,
 746    ) -> str:
 747        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 748            return sql
 749
 750        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 751        lines = sql.split("\n")
 752
 753        return "\n".join(
 754            (
 755                line
 756                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 757                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 758            )
 759            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 760        )
 761
 762    def sql(
 763        self,
 764        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 765        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 766        comment: bool = True,
 767    ) -> str:
 768        if not expression:
 769            return ""
 770
 771        if isinstance(expression, str):
 772            return expression
 773
 774        if key:
 775            value = expression.args.get(key)
 776            if value:
 777                return self.sql(value)
 778            return ""
 779
 780        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 781
 782        if callable(transform):
 783            sql = transform(self, expression)
 784        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 785            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 786
 787            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 788                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 789            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 790                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 791            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 792                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 793            else:
 794                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 795        else:
 796            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 797
 798        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 799
 800    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 801        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 802        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 803        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 804
 805    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 806        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 807        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 808        options = expression.args.get("options")
 809        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 810        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 811        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 812        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 813        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 814
 815    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 816        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 817            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 818        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 819        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 820
 821    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 822        return ".".join(
 823            self.sql(part)
 824            for part in (
 825                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 826                expression.args.get("db"),
 827                expression.args.get("table"),
 828                expression.args.get("this"),
 829            )
 830            if part
 831        )
 832
 833    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 834        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 835
 836        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 837            join_mark = ""
 838            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 839
 840        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 841
 842    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 845        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 846        return f"{position}{this}"
 847
 848    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 849        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 850        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 851        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 852        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 853        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 854        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 855        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 856        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 857
 858        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 859            kind = ""
 860
 861        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 862
 863    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 865        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 866        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 867
 868    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 870        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 871            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 872        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 873            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 874        else:
 875            persisted = ""
 876        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 877
 878    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 879        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 880
 881    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 882        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 883            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 884        else:
 885            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 886
 887        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 888
 889    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 890        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 891    ) -> str:
 892        this = ""
 893        if expression.this is not None:
 894            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 895            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 896
 897        start = expression.args.get("start")
 898        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 899        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 900        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 901        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 902        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 903        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 904        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 905        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 906        cycle_sql = ""
 907
 908        if cycle is not None:
 909            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 910            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 911
 912        sequence_opts = ""
 913        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 914            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 915            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 916
 917        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 918        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 919
 920        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 921
 922    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 923        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 924    ) -> str:
 925        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 926        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 927        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 928
 929    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 930        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 931    ) -> str:
 932        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 933
 934    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 935        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 936
 937    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 938        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 939
 940    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 941        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 942        if desc is not None:
 943            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 944        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 945
 946    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 948        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 949        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 950        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 951        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 952        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 953        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 954
 955    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 956        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 957
 958    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 959        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 960        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 961        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 962
 963        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 964
 965        properties_sql = ""
 966        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 967            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 968        ):
 969            properties_sql = self.sql(
 970                exp.Properties(
 971                    expressions=[
 972                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 973                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 974                    ]
 975                )
 976            )
 977
 978            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 979                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 980            elif not self.pretty:
 981                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 982                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 983
 984        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 985        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 986
 987        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 988        if expression_sql:
 989            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 990
 991            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 992                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 993                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 994                        exp.Properties(
 995                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 996                        ),
 997                        wrapped=False,
 998                    )
 999                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1000                else:
1001                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1002
1003        postindex_props_sql = ""
1004        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1005            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1006                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1007                wrapped=False,
1008                prefix=" ",
1009            )
1010
1011        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1012        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1013        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1014
1015        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1016        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1017
1018        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1019        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1020            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1021                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1022                sep=" ",
1023                prefix=" ",
1024                wrapped=False,
1025            )
1026
1027        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1028
1029        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1030        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1031            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1032                exp.Properties(
1033                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1034                ),
1035                sep=" ",
1036                prefix=" ",
1037                wrapped=False,
1038            )
1039
1040        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1041        no_schema_binding = (
1042            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1043        )
1044
1045        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1046        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1047
1048        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1049        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1050
1051    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1052        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1053        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1054        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1055        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1056        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1057        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1058        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1059        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1060        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1061        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1062
1063        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1064        if cache is None:
1065            cache_str = ""
1066        elif cache is True:
1067            cache_str = " CACHE"
1068        else:
1069            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1070
1071        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1072        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1073
1074        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1075
1076    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1078        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1079        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1080        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1081
1082    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1083        style = expression.args.get("style")
1084        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1085        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1086
1087    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1088        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1089        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1090
1091    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1092        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1093        if with_:
1094            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1095        return sql
1096
1097    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1098        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1099        recursive = (
1100            "RECURSIVE "
1101            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1102            else ""
1103        )
1104
1105        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1106
1107    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1108        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1109
1110        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1111        if materialized is False:
1112            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1113        elif materialized:
1114            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1115
1116        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1117
1118    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1119        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1120        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1121        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1122
1123        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1124            columns = ""
1125            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1126
1127        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1128            alias = self._next_name()
1129
1130        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1131
1132    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1134        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1135            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1136        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1137
1138    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1140        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1141            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1142        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1143
1144    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1147            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1148        return this
1149
1150    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1152        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1153
1154        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1155            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1156            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1157        else:
1158            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1159            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1160
1161        if escape:
1162            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1163            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1164        else:
1165            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1166            escape_sql = ""
1167
1168        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1169            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1170
1171        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1172
1173    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1174        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1175        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1176
1177    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1180        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1181        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1182
1183    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1184        type_value = expression.this
1185
1186        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1187            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1188        else:
1189            type_sql = (
1190                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1191                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1192                else type_value
1193            )
1194
1195        nested = ""
1196        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1197        values = ""
1198
1199        if interior:
1200            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1201                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1202                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1203                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1204                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1205                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1206            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1207                nested = f" {interior}"
1208            else:
1209                nested = f"({interior})"
1210
1211        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1212        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1213            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1214            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1215        ):
1216            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1217
1218        return type_sql
1219
1220    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1221        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1222        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1223        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1224        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1225
1226    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1228        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1229        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1230        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1231        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1232        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1233        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1234        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1235        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1236        if self.RETURNING_END:
1237            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1238        else:
1239            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1240        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1241
1242    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1244        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1245        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1246        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1247        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1248        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1249        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1250        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1251        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1252        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1253        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1254        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1255        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1256
1257    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1258        return self.set_operations(expression)
1259
1260    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1261        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1262
1263    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1264        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1265        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1266        count = expression.args.get("count")
1267        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1268        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1269            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1270        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1271        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1272
1273    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1274        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1275            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1276            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1277            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1278
1279        agg = expression.this
1280        agg_arg = agg.this
1281        cond = expression.expression.this
1282        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1283        return self.sql(agg)
1284
1285    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1286        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1287            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1288            return ""
1289
1290        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1291
1292    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1293        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1294        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1295        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1296        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1297        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1298        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1299        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1300        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1301        if include:
1302            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1303        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1304        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1305        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1306        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1307        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1308        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1309
1310        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1311
1312    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1313        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1314        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1315        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1316        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1317        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1318        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1319        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1320
1321        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1322
1323        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1324        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1325
1326    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1327        text = expression.name
1328        lower = text.lower()
1329        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1330        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1331        if (
1332            expression.quoted
1333            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1334            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1335            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1336        ):
1337            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1338        return text
1339
1340    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1341        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1342        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1343            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1344
1345        return text
1346
1347    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1348        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1349        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1350            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1351        return text
1352
1353    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1354        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1355        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1356        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1357        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1358        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1359
1360    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1361        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1362        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1363
1364    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1365        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1366
1367    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1368        root_properties = []
1369        with_properties = []
1370
1371        for p in expression.expressions:
1372            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1373            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1374                with_properties.append(p)
1375            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1376                root_properties.append(p)
1377
1378        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1379        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1380
1381        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1382            with_props = " " + with_props
1383
1384        return root_props + with_props
1385
1386    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1387        if properties.expressions:
1388            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1389        return ""
1390
1391    def properties(
1392        self,
1393        properties: exp.Properties,
1394        prefix: str = "",
1395        sep: str = ", ",
1396        suffix: str = "",
1397        wrapped: bool = True,
1398    ) -> str:
1399        if properties.expressions:
1400            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1401            if expressions:
1402                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1403                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1404        return ""
1405
1406    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1407        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1408
1409    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1410        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1411        for p in properties.expressions:
1412            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1413            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1414                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1415            else:
1416                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1417
1418        return properties_locs
1419
1420    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1421        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1422            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1423        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1424
1425    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1426        property_cls = expression.__class__
1427        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1428            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1429
1430        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1431        if not property_name:
1432            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1433
1434        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1435
1436    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1437        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1438            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1439            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1440
1441            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1442            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1443                like = f"({like})"
1444
1445            return like
1446
1447        if expression.expressions:
1448            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1449
1450        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1451        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1452
1453    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1454        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1455        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1456        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1457
1458    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1459        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1460        local = expression.args.get("local")
1461        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1462        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1463        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1464        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1465        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1466
1467    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1468        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1470        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1471
1472    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1473        if expression.args.get("default"):
1474            property = "DEFAULT"
1475        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1476            property = "ON"
1477        else:
1478            property = "OFF"
1479        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1480
1481    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1482        if expression.args.get("no"):
1483            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1484        if expression.args.get("default"):
1485            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1486
1487        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1488        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1489
1490    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1491        default = expression.args.get("default")
1492        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1493        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1494        if default or minimum or maximum:
1495            if default:
1496                prop = "DEFAULT"
1497            elif minimum:
1498                prop = "MINIMUM"
1499            else:
1500                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1501            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1502        units = expression.args.get("units")
1503        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1504        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1505
1506    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1507        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1508        always = expression.args.get("always")
1509        default = expression.args.get("default")
1510        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1511        never = expression.args.get("never")
1512
1513        if autotemp is not None:
1514            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1515        elif always:
1516            prop = "ALWAYS"
1517        elif default:
1518            prop = "DEFAULT"
1519        elif manual:
1520            prop = "MANUAL"
1521        elif never:
1522            prop = "NEVER"
1523        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1524
1525    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1526        no = expression.args.get("no")
1527        no = " NO" if no else ""
1528        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1529        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1530        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1531        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1532        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1533
1534    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1535        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1536            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1537        if expression.this:
1538            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1539            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1540            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1541
1542        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1543        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1544        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1545
1546    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1548
1549        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1550        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1551            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1552        else:
1553            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1554
1555        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1556
1557    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1558        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1559        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1560        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1561        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1562        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1563        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1564        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1565
1566    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1567        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1568        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1569        statistics_sql = ""
1570        if statistics is not None:
1571            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1572        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1573
1574    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1576        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1577        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1578        data_consistency = (
1579            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1580        )
1581        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1582        retention_period = (
1583            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1584        )
1585
1586        if this:
1587            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1588        else:
1589            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1590
1591        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1592
1593        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1594
1595    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1596        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1597        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1598
1599        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1600            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1601        else:
1602            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1603
1604        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1605        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1606        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1607        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1608        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1609        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1610        if is_function:
1611            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1612        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1613
1614        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1615        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1616        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1617        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1618        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1619        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1620        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1621        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1622
1623        if self.RETURNING_END:
1624            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1625        else:
1626            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1627
1628        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1629        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1630
1631    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1632        return self.set_operations(expression)
1633
1634    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1635        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1636
1637    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1638        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1639
1640    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1641        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1642        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1644        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1645        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1646
1647    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1648        return expression.name
1649
1650    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1651        return expression.name
1652
1653    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1654        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1655
1656        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1657        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1658
1659        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1660        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1661        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1662
1663        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1664        if expressions:
1665            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1666            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1667
1668        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1669
1670    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1671        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1672
1673    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1674        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1675        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1676        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1677        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1678        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1679        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1680        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1681        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1682        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1683        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1684        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1685        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1686        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1687
1688    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1689        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1690
1691    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1692        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1693        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1694        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1695        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1696
1697    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1699        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1700        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1701        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1702
1703    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1704        return ".".join(
1705            self.sql(part)
1706            for part in (
1707                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1708                expression.args.get("db"),
1709                expression.args.get("this"),
1710            )
1711            if part is not None
1712        )
1713
1714    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1715        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1716        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1717        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1718        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1719        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1720        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1721        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1722        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1723        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1724        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1725        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1726        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1727        joins = self.indent(
1728            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1729        )
1730        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1731
1732        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1733        if file_format:
1734            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1735            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1736            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1737
1738        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1739        if ordinality:
1740            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1741            alias = ""
1742
1743        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1744        if when:
1745            table = f"{table} {when}"
1746
1747        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1748
1749    def tablesample_sql(
1750        self,
1751        expression: exp.TableSample,
1752        sep: str = " AS ",
1753        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1754    ) -> str:
1755        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1756            table = expression.this.copy()
1757            table.set("alias", None)
1758            this = self.sql(table)
1759            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1760        else:
1761            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1762            alias = ""
1763
1764        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1765        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1766        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1767        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1768        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1769        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1770        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1771        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1772        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1773
1774        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1775        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1776            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1777
1778        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1779        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1780            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1781
1782        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1783        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1784            expr = f"({expr})"
1785
1786        return (
1787            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1788        )
1789
1790    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1791        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1792
1793        if expression.this:
1794            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1795            if not expressions:
1796                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1797
1798            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1799            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1800            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1801            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1802            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1803
1804        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1805        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1806        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1807        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1808        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1809        if include_nulls is not None:
1810            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1811        else:
1812            nulls = ""
1813        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1814
1815    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1816        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1817        kind = expression.text("kind")
1818        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1819        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1820
1821    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1822        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1823
1824    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1826        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1827        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1828        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1829        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1830        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1831        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1832        if self.RETURNING_END:
1833            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1834        else:
1835            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1836        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1837        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1838
1839    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1840        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1841
1842        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1843        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1844            args = self.expressions(expression)
1845            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1846            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1847            values = (
1848                f"({values})"
1849                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1850                else values
1851            )
1852            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1853
1854        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1855        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1856        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1857
1858        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1859
1860        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1861            row = tup.expressions
1862
1863            if i == 0 and column_names:
1864                row = [
1865                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1866                ]
1867
1868            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1869
1870        if self.pretty:
1871            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1872            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1873            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1874            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1875            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1876
1877        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1878        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1879        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1880
1881    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1882        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1883
1884    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1885        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1886        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1887        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1888
1889    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1890        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1891
1892    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1893        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1894        if group_by_all is True:
1895            modifier = " ALL"
1896        elif group_by_all is False:
1897            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1898        else:
1899            modifier = ""
1900
1901        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1902
1903        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1904        grouping_sets = (
1905            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1906        )
1907
1908        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1909        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1910            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1911        else:
1912            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1913            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1914
1915        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1916        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1917            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1918        else:
1919            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1920            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1921
1922        groupings = csv(
1923            grouping_sets,
1924            cube_sql,
1925            rollup_sql,
1926            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1927            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1928        )
1929
1930        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1931            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1932
1933        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1934
1935    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1936        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1937        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1938
1939    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1940        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1941        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1942        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1943        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1944        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1945        return start + connect
1946
1947    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1948        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1949
1950    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1951        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1952            side = None
1953        else:
1954            side = expression.side
1955
1956        op_sql = " ".join(
1957            op
1958            for op in (
1959                expression.method,
1960                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1961                side,
1962                expression.kind,
1963                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1964            )
1965            if op
1966        )
1967        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1968        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1969        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1970        using = expression.args.get("using")
1971
1972        if not on_sql and using:
1973            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1974
1975        this = expression.this
1976        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1977
1978        if on_sql:
1979            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1980            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1981            if using:
1982                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1983            else:
1984                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1985        elif not op_sql:
1986            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1987                return f" {this_sql}"
1988
1989            return f", {this_sql}"
1990
1991        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1992            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1993
1994        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1995
1996    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1997        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1998        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1999        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2000
2001    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2002        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2003
2004        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2005        if cross_apply is True:
2006            op = "INNER JOIN "
2007        elif cross_apply is False:
2008            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2009        else:
2010            op = ""
2011
2012        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2013
2014    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2016
2017        if expression.args.get("view"):
2018            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2019            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2020            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2021            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2022            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2023            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2024
2025        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2026        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2027        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2028
2029    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2031
2032        args = [
2033            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2034            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2035            if e
2036        ]
2037
2038        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2039        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2040        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2041        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2042
2043        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2044
2045    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2046        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2047        value = expression.expression
2048        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2049        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2050        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2051        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2052
2053    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2054        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2055        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2056        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2057        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2058        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2059        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2060        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2061        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2062
2063    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2064        expressions = (
2065            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2066        )
2067        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2068        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2069
2070    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2071        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2072
2073    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2074        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2075            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2076            return ""
2077
2078        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2079        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2080        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2081        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2082
2083        if wait is not None:
2084            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2085                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2086            else:
2087                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2088
2089        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2090
2091    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2092        text = expression.this or ""
2093        if expression.is_string:
2094            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2095        return text
2096
2097    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2098        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2099            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2100            text = "".join(
2101                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2102            )
2103
2104        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2105            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2106        )
2107
2108    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2109        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2110        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2111        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2112        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2113        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2114        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2115        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2116        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2117        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2118        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2119        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2120
2121    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2122        return "NULL"
2123
2124    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2125        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2126
2127    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2129        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2130        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2131        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2132        interpolated_values = [
2133            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2134            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2135        ]
2136        interpolate = (
2137            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2138        )
2139        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2140
2141    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2142        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2143        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2144        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2145        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2146        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2147        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2148        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2149
2150    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2151        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2152
2153    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2154        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2155
2156    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2157        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2158
2159    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2160        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2161        asc = not desc
2162
2163        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2164        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2165        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2166        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2167        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2168
2169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2170
2171        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2172        nulls_sort_change = ""
2173        if nulls_first and (
2174            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2175        ):
2176            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2177        elif (
2178            nulls_last
2179            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2180            and not nulls_are_last
2181        ):
2182            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2183
2184        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2185        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2186            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2187            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2188                self.unsupported(
2189                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2190                )
2191                nulls_sort_change = ""
2192            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2193                if expression.this.is_int:
2194                    self.unsupported(
2195                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2196                    )
2197                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2198                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2199                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2200                nulls_sort_change = ""
2201
2202        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2203        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2204
2205        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2206
2207    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2208        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2209        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2210
2211        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2212
2213        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2214
2215    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2216        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2217        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2218        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2219        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2220        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2221        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2222        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2223        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2224        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2225        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2226        definition_sqls = [
2227            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2228            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2229        ]
2230        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2231        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2232        body = "".join(
2233            (
2234                partition,
2235                order,
2236                measures,
2237                rows,
2238                after,
2239                pattern,
2240                define,
2241            )
2242        )
2243        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2244        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2245        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2246
2247    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2248        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2249
2250        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2251            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2252        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2253            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2254
2255        return csv(
2256            *sqls,
2257            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2258            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2259            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2260            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2261            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2262            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2263            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2264            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2265            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2266            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2267            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2268            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2269            self.options_modifier(expression),
2270            sep="",
2271        )
2272
2273    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2274        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2275        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2276
2277    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2278        return ""
2279
2280    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2281        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2282    ) -> t.List[str]:
2283        return [
2284            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2285            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2286        ]
2287
2288    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2289        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2290        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2291        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2292
2293    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2294        into = expression.args.get("into")
2295        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2296            into.pop()
2297
2298        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2299        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2300        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2301        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2302
2303        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2304        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2305            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2306            limit.pop()
2307        else:
2308            top = ""
2309
2310        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2311
2312        if kind:
2313            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2314                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2315            else:
2316                if kind == "STRUCT":
2317                    expressions = self.expressions(
2318                        sqls=[
2319                            self.sql(
2320                                exp.Struct(
2321                                    expressions=[
2322                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2323                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2324                                        else e
2325                                        for e in expression.expressions
2326                                    ]
2327                                )
2328                            )
2329                        ]
2330                    )
2331                kind = ""
2332
2333        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2334        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2335        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2336        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2337        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2338            expression,
2339            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2340            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2341            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2342        )
2343
2344        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2345
2346        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2347            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2348                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2349            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2350                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2351            else:
2352                table_kind = ""
2353            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2354
2355        return sql
2356
2357    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2359        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2360        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2361
2362    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2363        if expression.expressions:
2364            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2365        return ""
2366
2367    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2368        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2369        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2370        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2371        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2372        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2373        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2374        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2375
2376    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2378        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2379
2380    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2381        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2382        kind = expression.text("kind")
2383        if kind:
2384            kind = f"{kind}."
2385        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2386
2387    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2388        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2389
2390    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2391        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2392        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2393
2394        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2395        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2396
2397        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2398        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2399
2400    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2401        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2402        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2403
2404    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2405        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2406            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2407            order = expression.args.get("order")
2408
2409            if limit or order:
2410                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2411
2412                if limit:
2413                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2414                if order:
2415                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2416                return self.sql(select)
2417
2418        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2419        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2420
2421        while stack:
2422            node = stack.pop()
2423
2424            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2425                stack.append(node.expression)
2426                stack.append(
2427                    self.maybe_comment(
2428                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2429                        comments=node.comments,
2430                        separated=True,
2431                    )
2432                )
2433                stack.append(node.this)
2434            else:
2435                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2436
2437        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2438        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2439        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2440
2441    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2442        return self.set_operations(expression)
2443
2444    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2445        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2446        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2447        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2448        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2449
2450    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2451        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2452
2453        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2454        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2455
2456        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2457            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2458                alias.append("columns", offset)
2459
2460        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2461            columns = alias.columns
2462            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2463        else:
2464            alias = self.sql(alias)
2465
2466        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2467        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2468            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2469        else:
2470            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2471                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2472            elif offset:
2473                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2474            else:
2475                suffix = alias
2476
2477        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2478
2479    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2480        return ""
2481
2482    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2483        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2484        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2485
2486    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2488        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2489        order = expression.args.get("order")
2490        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2491        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2492        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2493        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2494
2495        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2496
2497        first = expression.args.get("first")
2498        if first is None:
2499            first = ""
2500        else:
2501            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2502
2503        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2504            return f"{this} {alias}"
2505
2506        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2507        return f"{this} ({args})"
2508
2509    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2510        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2511        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2512
2513    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2514        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2515        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2516        end = (
2517            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2518            or "CURRENT ROW"
2519        )
2520        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2521
2522    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2524        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2525        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2526
2527    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2530        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2531        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2532
2533    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2534        return apply_index_offset(
2535            expression.this,
2536            expression.expressions,
2537            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2538        )
2539
2540    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2541        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2542        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2543        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2544
2545    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2546        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2547
2548    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2550        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2551            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2552                this = self.wrap(this)
2553            return f"ANY{this}"
2554        return f"ANY {this}"
2555
2556    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2557        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2558
2559    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2561        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2562
2563        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2564            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2565            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2566
2567        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2568
2569        if default:
2570            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2571
2572        statements.append("END")
2573
2574        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2575            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2576
2577        return " ".join(statements)
2578
2579    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2581        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2582        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2583
2584    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2585        order = expression.args.get("order")
2586        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2587        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2588
2589    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2590        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2591        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2592        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2593
2594    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2595        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2596
2597        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2598            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2599        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2600            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2601        else:
2602            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2603
2604    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2605        args = expression.expressions
2606        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2607            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2608
2609        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2610            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2611
2612        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2613            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2614
2615        return args
2616
2617    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2618        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2619
2620        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2621        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2622            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2623
2624        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2625
2626    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2627        return self.func(
2628            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2629        )
2630
2631    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2632        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2633        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2634
2635    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2636        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2637        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2638        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2639        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2640        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2641        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2642        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2643        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2644
2645    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2646        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2647        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2648        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2649        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2650
2651    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2652        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2653
2654    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2655        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2656        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2657        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2658
2659    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2660        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2661
2662    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2663        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2664        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2665            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2666
2667        return path
2668
2669    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2670        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2671            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2672            if not callable(transform):
2673                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2674                return ""
2675
2676            return transform(self, expression)
2677
2678        if isinstance(expression, int):
2679            return str(expression)
2680
2681        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2682            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2683            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2684        else:
2685            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2686            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2687
2688        return escaped
2689
2690    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2691        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2692
2693    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2694        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2695        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2696
2697        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2698        if unique_keys is not None:
2699            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2700        else:
2701            unique_keys = ""
2702
2703        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2704        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2705        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2706        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2707
2708        return self.func(
2709            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2710            *expression.expressions,
2711            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2712        )
2713
2714    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2715        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2716
2717    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2718        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2719        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2720        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2721        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2722        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2723        return self.func(
2724            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2725        )
2726
2727    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2729        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2730        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2731        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2732        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2733        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2734        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2735        return self.func(
2736            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2737            this,
2738            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2739        )
2740
2741    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2742        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2743        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2744        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2745
2746        if nested_schema:
2747            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2748
2749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2750        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2751        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2752        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2753
2754    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2755        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2756
2757    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2759        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2760        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2761        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2762        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2763        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2764        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2765        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2766        return self.func(
2767            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2768        )
2769
2770    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2772        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2773        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2774        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2775        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2776        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2777
2778    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2780        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2781        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2782        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2783        with_ = (
2784            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2785            if expressions
2786            else ""
2787        )
2788        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2789
2790    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2791        query = expression.args.get("query")
2792        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2793        field = expression.args.get("field")
2794        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2795
2796        if query:
2797            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2798        elif unnest:
2799            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2800        elif field:
2801            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2802        else:
2803            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2804
2805        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2806
2807    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2808        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2809
2810    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2811        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2812        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2813            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2814        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2815
2816        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2817            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2818            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2819
2820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2821        if this:
2822            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2823            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2824
2825        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2826
2827    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2828        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2829
2830    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2832        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2833        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2834        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2835        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2836        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2837
2838    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2839        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2840
2841    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2842        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2843        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2844
2845    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2846        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2847        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2848        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2849        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2850
2851    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2852        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2853
2854    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2855        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2856        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2857        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2858
2859    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2860        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2861        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2862
2863        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2864            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2865        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2866            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2867
2868        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2869
2870    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2871        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2872
2873    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2875        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2876        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2877
2878    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2880        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2881        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2882
2883    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2886        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2887
2888    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2889        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2890
2891    def and_sql(
2892        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2893    ) -> str:
2894        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2895
2896    def or_sql(
2897        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2898    ) -> str:
2899        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2900
2901    def xor_sql(
2902        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2903    ) -> str:
2904        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2905
2906    def connector_sql(
2907        self,
2908        expression: exp.Connector,
2909        op: str,
2910        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2911    ) -> str:
2912        if stack is not None:
2913            if expression.expressions:
2914                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2915            else:
2916                stack.append(expression.right)
2917                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2918                    for comment in expression.comments:
2919                        if comment:
2920                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2921                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2922            return op
2923
2924        stack = [expression]
2925        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2926        ops = set()
2927
2928        while stack:
2929            node = stack.pop()
2930            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2931                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2932            else:
2933                sql = self.sql(node)
2934                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2935                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2936                else:
2937                    sqls.append(sql)
2938
2939        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2940        return sep.join(sqls)
2941
2942    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2943        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2944
2945    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2946        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2947
2948    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2949        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2950
2951    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2952        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2953
2954    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2955        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2956
2957    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2958        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2959
2960    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2961        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2962        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2963        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2964        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2965        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2966        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2967        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2968
2969    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2970        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2971        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2972
2973    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2974        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2975
2976    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2977        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2978            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2979        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2980
2981    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2982        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2983
2984    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2986        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2987        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2988        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2989        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2990        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2991
2992    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2994        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2995        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2996        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2997        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2998        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2999        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3000        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3001        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3002
3003    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3004        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3005        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3006        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3007        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3008
3009        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3010            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3011
3012        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3013
3014    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3015        return "BEGIN"
3016
3017    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3018        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3019        if chain is not None:
3020            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3021
3022        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3023
3024    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3025        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3026        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3027        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3028
3029    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3031
3032        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3033        if dtype:
3034            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3035            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3036            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3037            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3038            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3039
3040        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3041        if default:
3042            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3043
3044        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3045        if comment:
3046            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3047
3048        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3049        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3050
3051        if not drop and not allow_null:
3052            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3053
3054        if allow_null is not None:
3055            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3056            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3057
3058        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3059
3060    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3062        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3063            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3064        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3065
3066    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3067        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3069        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3070        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3071        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3072
3073    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3074        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3075            # Remove db from tables
3076            expression = expression.transform(
3077                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3078            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3079        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3080        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3081
3082    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3083        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3084        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3085        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3086        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3087
3088    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3089        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3090        return f"SET {exprs}"
3091
3092    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3093        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3094
3095        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3096            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3097        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3098            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3099        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3100            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3101        else:
3102            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3103
3104        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3105        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3106        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3107        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3108        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3109        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3110        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3111
3112    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3113        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3114            return self.expressions(
3115                expression,
3116                key="actions",
3117                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3118            )
3119        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3120
3121    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3122        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3123        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3124        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3125
3126    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3127        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3128
3129    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3130        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3131
3132        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3133            case = exp.case()
3134            for arg in expression.expressions:
3135                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3136            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3137
3138        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3139
3140        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3141        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3142        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3143
3144    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3145        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3146
3147    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3148        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3149
3150    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3151        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3152        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3153        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3154        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3155
3156    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3157        return self.sql(
3158            exp.Cast(
3159                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3160                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3161            )
3162        )
3163
3164    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3165        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3166            return self.func(
3167                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3168            )
3169        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3170
3171    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3172        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3173
3174        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3175            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3176
3177        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3178            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3179                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3180
3181        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3182            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3183                return self.sql(
3184                    exp.cast(
3185                        l / r,
3186                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3187                    )
3188                )
3189
3190        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3191
3192    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3193        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3194
3195    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3196        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3197
3198    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3199        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3200
3201    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3202        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3203
3204    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3205        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3206
3207    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3208        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3209
3210    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3211        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3212
3213    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3214        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3215
3216    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3217        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3218
3219    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3220        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3221
3222    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3223        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3224
3225    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3226        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3227            return self.sql(
3228                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3229            )
3230        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3231
3232    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3233        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3234
3235    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3236        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3237
3238    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3239        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3240
3241    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3242        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3243
3244    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3245        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3246
3247    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3248        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3249
3250    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3251        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3252
3253    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3254        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3255
3256    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3257        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3258
3259    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3260        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3261
3262    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3263        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3264
3265    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3266        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3267
3268    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3269        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3270
3271    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3272        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3273            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3274            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3275
3276        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3277
3278    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3279        this = expression.this
3280        expr = expression.expression
3281
3282        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3283            this, expr = expr, this
3284        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3285            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3286                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3287
3288            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3289
3290        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3291
3292    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3293        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3294        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3295        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3296        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3297        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3298
3299    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3300        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3301        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3302
3303    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3304        args = []
3305
3306        for key in expression.arg_types:
3307            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3308
3309            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3310                for value in arg_value:
3311                    args.append(value)
3312            elif arg_value is not None:
3313                args.append(arg_value)
3314
3315        if self.normalize_functions:
3316            name = expression.sql_name()
3317        else:
3318            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3319
3320        return self.func(name, *args)
3321
3322    def func(
3323        self,
3324        name: str,
3325        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3326        prefix: str = "(",
3327        suffix: str = ")",
3328    ) -> str:
3329        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3330
3331    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3332        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3333        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3334            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3335        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3336
3337    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3338        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3339
3340    def format_time(
3341        self,
3342        expression: exp.Expression,
3343        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3344        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3345    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3346        return format_time(
3347            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3348            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3349            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3350        )
3351
3352    def expressions(
3353        self,
3354        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3355        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3356        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3357        flat: bool = False,
3358        indent: bool = True,
3359        skip_first: bool = False,
3360        skip_last: bool = False,
3361        sep: str = ", ",
3362        prefix: str = "",
3363        dynamic: bool = False,
3364        new_line: bool = False,
3365    ) -> str:
3366        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3367
3368        if not expressions:
3369            return ""
3370
3371        if flat:
3372            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3373
3374        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3375
3376        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3377        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3378            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3379
3380        result_sqls = []
3381        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3382            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3383            if not sql:
3384                continue
3385
3386            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3387
3388            if self.pretty:
3389                if self.leading_comma:
3390                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3391                else:
3392                    result_sqls.append(
3393                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3394                    )
3395            else:
3396                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3397
3398        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3399            if new_line:
3400                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3401                result_sqls.append("")
3402            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3403        else:
3404            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3405        return (
3406            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3407            if indent
3408            else result_sql
3409        )
3410
3411    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3412        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3413        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3414        if flat:
3415            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3416        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3417
3418    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3419        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3420        if not property_name:
3421            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3422        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3423
3424    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3425        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3426
3427    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3428        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3429
3430    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3432        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3433        expressions = (
3434            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3435        )
3436        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3437
3438    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3440        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3441        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3442
3443    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3444        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3445
3446    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3447        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3448        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3449        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3450        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3451
3452        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3453        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3454            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3455            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3456            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3457            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3458        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3459            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3460                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3461            else:
3462                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3463        else:
3464            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3465        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3466
3467    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3468        table = expression.this
3469        table_alias = ""
3470
3471        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3472        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3473            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3474            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3475
3476        this = self.sql(table)
3477        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3478        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3479        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3480        sep = self.sep()
3481
3482        return self.prepend_ctes(
3483            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3484        )
3485
3486    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3487        if expression.args.get("format"):
3488            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3489
3490        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3491
3492    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3493        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3494            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3495            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3496
3497        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3498        if not fmt:
3499            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3500            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3501
3502        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3503
3504    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3505        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3506        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3507        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3508        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3509        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3510
3511    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3513        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3514        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3515        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3516
3517    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3518        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3519
3520    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3521        return ""
3522
3523    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3524        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3525        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3526        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3527        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3528        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3529
3530    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3532        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3533
3534        if having:
3535            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3536
3537        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3538
3539    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3540        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3541        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3542        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3543        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3544        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3545        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3546        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3547        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3548        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3549        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3550        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3551        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3552        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3553
3554    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3555        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3556        if key_block_size:
3557            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3558
3559        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3560        if using:
3561            return f"USING {using}"
3562
3563        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3564        if parser:
3565            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3566
3567        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3568        if comment:
3569            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3570
3571        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3572        if visible is not None:
3573            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3574
3575        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3576        if engine_attr:
3577            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3578
3579        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3580        if secondary_engine_attr:
3581            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3582
3583        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3584        return ""
3585
3586    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3587        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3588        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3589
3590    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3591        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3592        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3594        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3595        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3596        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3597        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3598        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3599        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3600        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3601        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3602
3603    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3604        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3605            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3606
3607        case = exp.Case().when(
3608            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3609            expression.args["true"],
3610            copy=False,
3611        )
3612        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3613        if else_cond:
3614            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3615
3616        return self.sql(case)
3617
3618    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3619        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3620        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3621        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3622        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3623        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3624        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3625
3626    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3627        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3628
3629    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3630        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3631
3632    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3633        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3634        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3635        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3636        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3637        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3638        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3639
3640    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3642        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3643        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3644
3645    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3647        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3648        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3649
3650    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3651        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3652
3653    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3654        arg = expression.this
3655        if not arg.type:
3656            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3657
3658            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3659
3660        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3661            return self.sql(arg)
3662
3663        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3664        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3665
3666    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3667        this = expression.this
3668        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3669            return self.sql(this)
3670
3671        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3672
3673    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3674        this = expression.this
3675        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3676            return self.sql(this)
3677
3678        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3679
3680    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3681        this = expression.this
3682        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3683
3684        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3685            return self.sql(
3686                exp.cast(
3687                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3688                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3689                )
3690            )
3691
3692        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3693            return self.sql(this)
3694
3695        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3696
3697    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3698        return self.sql(
3699            exp.func(
3700                "DATEDIFF",
3701                expression.this,
3702                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3703                "day",
3704            )
3705        )
3706
3707    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3708        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3709            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3710
3711        unit = expression.text("unit")
3712        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3713            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3714
3715        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3716
3717    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3718        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3719
3720        return self.func(
3721            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3722        )
3723
3724    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3725        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3726            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3727            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3728            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3729            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3730
3731        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3732
3733        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3734        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3735            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3736
3737        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3738
3739    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3740        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3741        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3742
3743    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3744        expression.set(
3745            "expressions",
3746            [
3747                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3748                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3749                else e
3750                for e in expression.expressions
3751            ],
3752        )
3753
3754        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3755
3756    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3757        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3758        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3759
3760        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3761
3762    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3763        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3764        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3765
3766        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3767
3768        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3769        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3770
3771        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3772        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3773
3774        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3775        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3776
3777        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3778        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3779
3780        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3781
3782    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3783    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3784    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3785        to = expression.this
3786        value = expression.expression
3787        style = expression.args.get("style")
3788        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3789        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3790
3791        if not to or not value:
3792            return ""
3793
3794        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3795        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3796            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3797
3798        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3799        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3800
3801        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3802        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3803            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3804
3805            style_value = style.name
3806            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3807            if not converted_style:
3808                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3809
3810            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3811
3812            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3813                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3814            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3815                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3816            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3817                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3818            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3819                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3820
3821        if not transformed:
3822            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3823
3824        return self.sql(transformed)
3825
3826    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3827        this = expression.this
3828        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3829            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3830            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3831
3832        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3833            return f".{this}"
3834
3835        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3836        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3837
3838    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3839        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3840        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3841
3842    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3843        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3844            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3845
3846            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3847
3848        return expression
3849
3850    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3851        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3852            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3853            mods = sorted(
3854                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3855                key=lambda x: 0
3856                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3857                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3858            )
3859
3860            if mods:
3861                mod = mods[0]
3862                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3863                this.meta["inline"] = True
3864                mod.this.replace(this)
3865                return self.sql(expression.this)
3866
3867            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3868
3869            if agg_func:
3870                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3871
3872        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3873
3874    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3875        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3876        if self.pretty:
3877            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3878        return string
3879
3880    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3881        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3882
3883        if expression.expressions:
3884            upper = option.upper()
3885
3886            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3887            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3888
3889            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3890            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3891            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3892            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3893
3894        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3895
3896        if not value:
3897            return option
3898
3899        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3900
3901        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3902
3903    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3904        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3905        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3906            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3907            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3908            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3909        else:
3910            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3911            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3912            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3913
3914        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3915        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3916
3917        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3918        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3919
3920        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3921        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3922
3923        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3924        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3925
3926        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3927
3928    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3930        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3931
3932        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3933        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3934        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3935        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3936
3937        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3938        params = self.expressions(
3939            expression,
3940            key="params",
3941            sep=sep,
3942            new_line=True,
3943            skip_last=True,
3944            skip_first=True,
3945            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3946        )
3947
3948        if params:
3949            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3950                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3951            elif not self.pretty:
3952                params = f" {params}"
3953
3954        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3955
3956    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3957        return ""
3958
3959    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3960        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3961        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3962        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3963        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3964        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3965
3966        if filter_col or retention_period:
3967            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3968
3969        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3970
3971    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3972        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3973    ) -> str:
3974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3975        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3976        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3977        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3978
3979    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3981        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3982        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
566    def __init__(
567        self,
568        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
569        identify: str | bool = False,
570        normalize: bool = False,
571        pad: int = 2,
572        indent: int = 2,
573        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
574        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
575        max_unsupported: int = 3,
576        leading_comma: bool = False,
577        max_text_width: int = 80,
578        comments: bool = True,
579        dialect: DialectType = None,
580    ):
581        import sqlglot
582        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
583
584        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
585        self.identify = identify
586        self.normalize = normalize
587        self.pad = pad
588        self._indent = indent
589        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
590        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
591        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
592        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
593        self.comments = comments
594        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
595
596        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
597        self.normalize_functions = (
598            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
599        )
600
601        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
602        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
603            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
604        )
605        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
606            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
607        )
608
609        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
611    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
612        """
613        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
614
615        Args:
616            expression: The syntax tree.
617            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
618                it is safer to copy.
619
620        Returns:
621            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
622        """
623        if copy:
624            expression = expression.copy()
625
626        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
627
628        self.unsupported_messages = []
629        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
630
631        if self.pretty:
632            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
633
634        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
635            return sql
636
637        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
638            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
639                logger.warning(msg)
640        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
641            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
642
643        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
645    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
646        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
647        if (
648            not expression.parent
649            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
650            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
651        ):
652            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
653
654            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
655
656        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
657            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
658
659            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
660
661        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
663    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
664        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
665            raise UnsupportedError(message)
666        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
668    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
669        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
671    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
672        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
674    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
675        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
676        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
677        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
679    def maybe_comment(
680        self,
681        sql: str,
682        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
683        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
684        separated: bool = False,
685    ) -> str:
686        comments = (
687            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
688            if self.comments
689            else None
690        )
691
692        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
693            return sql
694
695        comments_sql = " ".join(
696            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
697        )
698
699        if not comments_sql:
700            return sql
701
702        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
703
704        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
705            return (
706                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
707                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
708                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
709            )
710
711        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
713    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
714        this_sql = (
715            self.sql(expression)
716            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
717            else self.sql(expression, "this")
718        )
719        if not this_sql:
720            return "()"
721
722        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
723        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
725    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
726        original = self.identify
727        self.identify = False
728        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
729        self.identify = original
730        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
732    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
733        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
734            return name.upper()
735        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
736            return name.lower()
737        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
739    def indent(
740        self,
741        sql: str,
742        level: int = 0,
743        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
744        skip_first: bool = False,
745        skip_last: bool = False,
746    ) -> str:
747        if not self.pretty or not sql:
748            return sql
749
750        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
751        lines = sql.split("\n")
752
753        return "\n".join(
754            (
755                line
756                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
757                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
758            )
759            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
760        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
762    def sql(
763        self,
764        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
765        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
766        comment: bool = True,
767    ) -> str:
768        if not expression:
769            return ""
770
771        if isinstance(expression, str):
772            return expression
773
774        if key:
775            value = expression.args.get(key)
776            if value:
777                return self.sql(value)
778            return ""
779
780        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
781
782        if callable(transform):
783            sql = transform(self, expression)
784        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
785            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
786
787            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
788                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
789            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
790                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
791            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
792                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
793            else:
794                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
795        else:
796            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
797
798        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
800    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
801        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
802        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
803        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
805    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
806        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
807        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
808        options = expression.args.get("options")
809        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
810        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
811        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
812        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
813        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
815    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
816        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
817            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
818        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
819        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
821    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
822        return ".".join(
823            self.sql(part)
824            for part in (
825                expression.args.get("catalog"),
826                expression.args.get("db"),
827                expression.args.get("table"),
828                expression.args.get("this"),
829            )
830            if part
831        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
833    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
834        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
835
836        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
837            join_mark = ""
838            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
839
840        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
842    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
844        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
845        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
846        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
848    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
849        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
850        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
851        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
852        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
853        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
854        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
855        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
856        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
857
858        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
859            kind = ""
860
861        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
863    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
865        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
866        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
868    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
870        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
871            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
872        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
873            persisted = " PERSISTED"
874        else:
875            persisted = ""
876        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
878    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
879        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
881    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
882        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
883            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
884        else:
885            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
886
887        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
889    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
890        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
891    ) -> str:
892        this = ""
893        if expression.this is not None:
894            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
895            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
896
897        start = expression.args.get("start")
898        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
899        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
900        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
901        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
902        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
903        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
904        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
905        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
906        cycle_sql = ""
907
908        if cycle is not None:
909            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
910            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
911
912        sequence_opts = ""
913        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
914            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
915            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
916
917        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
918        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
919
920        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
922    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
923        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
924    ) -> str:
925        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
926        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
927        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
929    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
930        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
931    ) -> str:
932        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
934    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
935        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
937    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
938        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
940    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
941        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
942        if desc is not None:
943            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
944        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
946    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
948        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
949        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
950        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
951        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
952        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
953        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
955    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
956        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 958    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 959        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 960        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 961        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 962
 963        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 964
 965        properties_sql = ""
 966        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 967            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 968        ):
 969            properties_sql = self.sql(
 970                exp.Properties(
 971                    expressions=[
 972                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 973                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 974                    ]
 975                )
 976            )
 977
 978            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 979                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 980            elif not self.pretty:
 981                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 982                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 983
 984        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 985        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 986
 987        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 988        if expression_sql:
 989            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 990
 991            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 992                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 993                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 994                        exp.Properties(
 995                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 996                        ),
 997                        wrapped=False,
 998                    )
 999                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1000                else:
1001                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1002
1003        postindex_props_sql = ""
1004        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1005            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1006                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1007                wrapped=False,
1008                prefix=" ",
1009            )
1010
1011        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1012        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1013        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1014
1015        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1016        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1017
1018        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1019        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1020            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1021                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1022                sep=" ",
1023                prefix=" ",
1024                wrapped=False,
1025            )
1026
1027        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1028
1029        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1030        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1031            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1032                exp.Properties(
1033                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1034                ),
1035                sep=" ",
1036                prefix=" ",
1037                wrapped=False,
1038            )
1039
1040        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1041        no_schema_binding = (
1042            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1043        )
1044
1045        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1046        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1047
1048        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1049        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1051    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1052        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1053        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1054        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1055        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1056        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1057        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1058        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1059        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1060        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1061        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1062
1063        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1064        if cache is None:
1065            cache_str = ""
1066        elif cache is True:
1067            cache_str = " CACHE"
1068        else:
1069            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1070
1071        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1072        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1073
1074        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1076    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1078        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1079        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1080        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1082    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1083        style = expression.args.get("style")
1084        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1085        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1087    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1088        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1089        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1091    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1092        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1093        if with_:
1094            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1095        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1097    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1098        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1099        recursive = (
1100            "RECURSIVE "
1101            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1102            else ""
1103        )
1104
1105        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1107    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1108        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1109
1110        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1111        if materialized is False:
1112            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1113        elif materialized:
1114            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1115
1116        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1118    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1119        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1120        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1121        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1122
1123        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1124            columns = ""
1125            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1126
1127        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1128            alias = self._next_name()
1129
1130        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1132    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1134        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1135            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1136        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1138    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1140        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1141            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1142        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1144    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1147            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1148        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1150    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1152        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1153
1154        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1155            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1156            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1157        else:
1158            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1159            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1160
1161        if escape:
1162            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1163            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1164        else:
1165            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1166            escape_sql = ""
1167
1168        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1169            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1170
1171        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1173    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1174        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1175        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1177    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1180        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1181        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1183    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1184        type_value = expression.this
1185
1186        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1187            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1188        else:
1189            type_sql = (
1190                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1191                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1192                else type_value
1193            )
1194
1195        nested = ""
1196        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1197        values = ""
1198
1199        if interior:
1200            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1201                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1202                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1203                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1204                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1205                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1206            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1207                nested = f" {interior}"
1208            else:
1209                nested = f"({interior})"
1210
1211        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1212        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1213            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1214            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1215        ):
1216            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1217
1218        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1220    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1221        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1222        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1223        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1224        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1226    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1228        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1229        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1230        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1231        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1232        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1233        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1234        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1235        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1236        if self.RETURNING_END:
1237            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1238        else:
1239            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1240        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1242    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1244        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1245        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1246        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1247        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1248        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1249        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1250        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1251        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1252        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1253        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1254        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1255        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1257    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1258        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1260    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1261        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1263    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1264        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1265        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1266        count = expression.args.get("count")
1267        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1268        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1269            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1270        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1271        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1273    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1274        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1275            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1276            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1277            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1278
1279        agg = expression.this
1280        agg_arg = agg.this
1281        cond = expression.expression.this
1282        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1283        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1285    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1286        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1287            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1288            return ""
1289
1290        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1292    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1293        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1294        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1295        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1296        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1297        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1298        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1299        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1300        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1301        if include:
1302            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1303        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1304        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1305        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1306        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1307        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1308        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1309
1310        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1312    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1313        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1314        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1315        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1316        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1317        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1318        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1319        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1320
1321        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1322
1323        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1324        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1326    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1327        text = expression.name
1328        lower = text.lower()
1329        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1330        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1331        if (
1332            expression.quoted
1333            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1334            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1335            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1336        ):
1337            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1338        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1340    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1341        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1342        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1343            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1344
1345        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1347    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1348        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1349        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1350            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1351        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1353    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1354        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1355        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1356        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1357        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1358        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1360    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1361        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1362        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1364    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1365        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1367    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1368        root_properties = []
1369        with_properties = []
1370
1371        for p in expression.expressions:
1372            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1373            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1374                with_properties.append(p)
1375            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1376                root_properties.append(p)
1377
1378        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1379        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1380
1381        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1382            with_props = " " + with_props
1383
1384        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1386    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1387        if properties.expressions:
1388            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1389        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1391    def properties(
1392        self,
1393        properties: exp.Properties,
1394        prefix: str = "",
1395        sep: str = ", ",
1396        suffix: str = "",
1397        wrapped: bool = True,
1398    ) -> str:
1399        if properties.expressions:
1400            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1401            if expressions:
1402                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1403                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1404        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1406    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1407        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1409    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1410        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1411        for p in properties.expressions:
1412            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1413            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1414                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1415            else:
1416                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1417
1418        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1420    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1421        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1422            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1423        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1425    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1426        property_cls = expression.__class__
1427        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1428            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1429
1430        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1431        if not property_name:
1432            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1433
1434        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1436    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1437        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1438            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1439            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1440
1441            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1442            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1443                like = f"({like})"
1444
1445            return like
1446
1447        if expression.expressions:
1448            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1449
1450        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1451        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1453    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1454        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1455        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1456        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1458    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1459        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1460        local = expression.args.get("local")
1461        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1462        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1463        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1464        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1465        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1467    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1468        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1470        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1472    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1473        if expression.args.get("default"):
1474            property = "DEFAULT"
1475        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1476            property = "ON"
1477        else:
1478            property = "OFF"
1479        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1481    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1482        if expression.args.get("no"):
1483            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1484        if expression.args.get("default"):
1485            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1486
1487        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1488        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1490    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1491        default = expression.args.get("default")
1492        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1493        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1494        if default or minimum or maximum:
1495            if default:
1496                prop = "DEFAULT"
1497            elif minimum:
1498                prop = "MINIMUM"
1499            else:
1500                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1501            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1502        units = expression.args.get("units")
1503        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1504        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1506    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1507        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1508        always = expression.args.get("always")
1509        default = expression.args.get("default")
1510        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1511        never = expression.args.get("never")
1512
1513        if autotemp is not None:
1514            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1515        elif always:
1516            prop = "ALWAYS"
1517        elif default:
1518            prop = "DEFAULT"
1519        elif manual:
1520            prop = "MANUAL"
1521        elif never:
1522            prop = "NEVER"
1523        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1525    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1526        no = expression.args.get("no")
1527        no = " NO" if no else ""
1528        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1529        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1530        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1531        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1532        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1534    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1535        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1536            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1537        if expression.this:
1538            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1539            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1540            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1541
1542        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1543        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1544        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1546    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1548
1549        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1550        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1551            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1552        else:
1553            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1554
1555        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1557    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1558        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1559        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1560        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1561        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1562        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1563        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1564        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1566    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1567        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1568        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1569        statistics_sql = ""
1570        if statistics is not None:
1571            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1572        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1574    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1576        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1577        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1578        data_consistency = (
1579            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1580        )
1581        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1582        retention_period = (
1583            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1584        )
1585
1586        if this:
1587            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1588        else:
1589            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1590
1591        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1592
1593        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1595    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1596        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1597        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1598
1599        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1600            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1601        else:
1602            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1603
1604        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1605        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1606        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1607        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1608        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1609        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1610        if is_function:
1611            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1612        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1613
1614        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1615        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1616        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1617        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1618        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1619        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1620        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1621        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1622
1623        if self.RETURNING_END:
1624            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1625        else:
1626            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1627
1628        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1629        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1631    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1632        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1634    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1635        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1637    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1638        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1640    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1641        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1642        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1644        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1645        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1647    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1648        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1650    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1651        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1653    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1654        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1655
1656        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1657        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1658
1659        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1660        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1661        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1662
1663        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1664        if expressions:
1665            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1666            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1667
1668        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1670    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1671        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1673    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1674        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1675        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1676        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1677        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1678        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1679        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1680        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1681        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1682        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1683        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1684        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1685        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1686        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1688    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1689        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1691    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1692        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1693        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1694        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1695        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1697    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1699        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1700        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1701        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1703    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1704        return ".".join(
1705            self.sql(part)
1706            for part in (
1707                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1708                expression.args.get("db"),
1709                expression.args.get("this"),
1710            )
1711            if part is not None
1712        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1714    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1715        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1716        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1717        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1718        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1719        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1720        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1721        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1722        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1723        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1724        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1725        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1726        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1727        joins = self.indent(
1728            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1729        )
1730        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1731
1732        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1733        if file_format:
1734            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1735            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1736            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1737
1738        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1739        if ordinality:
1740            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1741            alias = ""
1742
1743        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1744        if when:
1745            table = f"{table} {when}"
1746
1747        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1749    def tablesample_sql(
1750        self,
1751        expression: exp.TableSample,
1752        sep: str = " AS ",
1753        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1754    ) -> str:
1755        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1756            table = expression.this.copy()
1757            table.set("alias", None)
1758            this = self.sql(table)
1759            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1760        else:
1761            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1762            alias = ""
1763
1764        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1765        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1766        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1767        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1768        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1769        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1770        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1771        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1772        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1773
1774        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1775        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1776            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1777
1778        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1779        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1780            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1781
1782        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1783        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1784            expr = f"({expr})"
1785
1786        return (
1787            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1788        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1790    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1791        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1792
1793        if expression.this:
1794            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1795            if not expressions:
1796                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1797
1798            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1799            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1800            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1801            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1802            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1803
1804        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1805        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1806        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1807        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1808        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1809        if include_nulls is not None:
1810            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1811        else:
1812            nulls = ""
1813        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1815    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1816        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1817        kind = expression.text("kind")
1818        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1819        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1821    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1822        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1824    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1826        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1827        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1828        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1829        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1830        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1831        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1832        if self.RETURNING_END:
1833            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1834        else:
1835            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1836        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1837        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1839    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1840        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1841
1842        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1843        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1844            args = self.expressions(expression)
1845            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1846            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1847            values = (
1848                f"({values})"
1849                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1850                else values
1851            )
1852            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1853
1854        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1855        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1856        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1857
1858        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1859
1860        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1861            row = tup.expressions
1862
1863            if i == 0 and column_names:
1864                row = [
1865                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1866                ]
1867
1868            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1869
1870        if self.pretty:
1871            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1872            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1873            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1874            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1875            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1876
1877        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1878        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1879        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1881    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1882        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1884    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1885        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1886        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1887        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1889    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1890        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1892    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1893        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1894        if group_by_all is True:
1895            modifier = " ALL"
1896        elif group_by_all is False:
1897            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1898        else:
1899            modifier = ""
1900
1901        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1902
1903        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1904        grouping_sets = (
1905            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1906        )
1907
1908        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1909        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1910            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1911        else:
1912            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1913            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1914
1915        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1916        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1917            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1918        else:
1919            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1920            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1921
1922        groupings = csv(
1923            grouping_sets,
1924            cube_sql,
1925            rollup_sql,
1926            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1927            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1928        )
1929
1930        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1931            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1932
1933        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1935    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1936        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1937        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1939    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1940        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1941        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1942        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1943        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1944        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1945        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1947    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1948        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1950    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1951        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1952            side = None
1953        else:
1954            side = expression.side
1955
1956        op_sql = " ".join(
1957            op
1958            for op in (
1959                expression.method,
1960                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1961                side,
1962                expression.kind,
1963                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1964            )
1965            if op
1966        )
1967        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1968        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1969        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1970        using = expression.args.get("using")
1971
1972        if not on_sql and using:
1973            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1974
1975        this = expression.this
1976        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1977
1978        if on_sql:
1979            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1980            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1981            if using:
1982                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1983            else:
1984                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1985        elif not op_sql:
1986            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1987                return f" {this_sql}"
1988
1989            return f", {this_sql}"
1990
1991        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1992            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1993
1994        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1996    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1997        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1998        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1999        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2001    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2002        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2003
2004        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2005        if cross_apply is True:
2006            op = "INNER JOIN "
2007        elif cross_apply is False:
2008            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2009        else:
2010            op = ""
2011
2012        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2014    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2016
2017        if expression.args.get("view"):
2018            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2019            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2020            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2021            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2022            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2023            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2024
2025        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2026        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2027        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2029    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2031
2032        args = [
2033            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2034            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2035            if e
2036        ]
2037
2038        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2039        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2040        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2041        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2042
2043        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2045    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2046        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2047        value = expression.expression
2048        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2049        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2050        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2051        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2053    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2054        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2055        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2056        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2057        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2058        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2059        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2060        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2061        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2063    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2064        expressions = (
2065            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2066        )
2067        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2068        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2070    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2071        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2073    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2074        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2075            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2076            return ""
2077
2078        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2079        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2080        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2081        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2082
2083        if wait is not None:
2084            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2085                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2086            else:
2087                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2088
2089        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2091    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2092        text = expression.this or ""
2093        if expression.is_string:
2094            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2095        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2097    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2098        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2099            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2100            text = "".join(
2101                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2102            )
2103
2104        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2105            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2106        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2108    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2109        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2110        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2111        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2112        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2113        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2114        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2115        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2116        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2117        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2118        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2119        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2121    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2122        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2124    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2125        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2127    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2129        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2130        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2131        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2132        interpolated_values = [
2133            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2134            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2135        ]
2136        interpolate = (
2137            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2138        )
2139        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2141    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2142        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2143        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2144        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2145        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2146        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2147        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2148        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2150    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2151        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2153    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2154        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2156    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2157        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2159    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2160        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2161        asc = not desc
2162
2163        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2164        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2165        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2166        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2167        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2168
2169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2170
2171        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2172        nulls_sort_change = ""
2173        if nulls_first and (
2174            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2175        ):
2176            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2177        elif (
2178            nulls_last
2179            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2180            and not nulls_are_last
2181        ):
2182            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2183
2184        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2185        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2186            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2187            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2188                self.unsupported(
2189                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2190                )
2191                nulls_sort_change = ""
2192            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2193                if expression.this.is_int:
2194                    self.unsupported(
2195                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2196                    )
2197                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2198                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2199                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2200                nulls_sort_change = ""
2201
2202        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2203        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2204
2205        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2207    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2208        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2209        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2210
2211        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2212
2213        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2215    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2216        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2217        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2218        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2219        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2220        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2221        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2222        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2223        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2224        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2225        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2226        definition_sqls = [
2227            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2228            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2229        ]
2230        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2231        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2232        body = "".join(
2233            (
2234                partition,
2235                order,
2236                measures,
2237                rows,
2238                after,
2239                pattern,
2240                define,
2241            )
2242        )
2243        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2244        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2245        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2247    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2248        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2249
2250        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2251            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2252        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2253            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2254
2255        return csv(
2256            *sqls,
2257            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2258            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2259            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2260            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2261            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2262            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2263            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2264            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2265            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2266            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2267            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2268            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2269            self.options_modifier(expression),
2270            sep="",
2271        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2273    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2274        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2275        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2277    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2278        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2280    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2281        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2282    ) -> t.List[str]:
2283        return [
2284            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2285            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2286        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2288    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2289        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2290        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2291        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2293    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2294        into = expression.args.get("into")
2295        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2296            into.pop()
2297
2298        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2299        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2300        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2301        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2302
2303        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2304        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2305            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2306            limit.pop()
2307        else:
2308            top = ""
2309
2310        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2311
2312        if kind:
2313            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2314                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2315            else:
2316                if kind == "STRUCT":
2317                    expressions = self.expressions(
2318                        sqls=[
2319                            self.sql(
2320                                exp.Struct(
2321                                    expressions=[
2322                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2323                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2324                                        else e
2325                                        for e in expression.expressions
2326                                    ]
2327                                )
2328                            )
2329                        ]
2330                    )
2331                kind = ""
2332
2333        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2334        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2335        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2336        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2337        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2338            expression,
2339            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2340            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2341            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2342        )
2343
2344        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2345
2346        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2347            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2348                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2349            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2350                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2351            else:
2352                table_kind = ""
2353            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2354
2355        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2357    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2359        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2360        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2362    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2363        if expression.expressions:
2364            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2365        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2367    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2368        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2369        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2370        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2371        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2372        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2373        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2374        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2376    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2378        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2380    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2381        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2382        kind = expression.text("kind")
2383        if kind:
2384            kind = f"{kind}."
2385        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2387    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2388        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2390    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2391        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2392        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2393
2394        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2395        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2396
2397        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2398        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2400    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2401        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2402        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2404    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2405        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2406            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2407            order = expression.args.get("order")
2408
2409            if limit or order:
2410                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2411
2412                if limit:
2413                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2414                if order:
2415                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2416                return self.sql(select)
2417
2418        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2419        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2420
2421        while stack:
2422            node = stack.pop()
2423
2424            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2425                stack.append(node.expression)
2426                stack.append(
2427                    self.maybe_comment(
2428                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2429                        comments=node.comments,
2430                        separated=True,
2431                    )
2432                )
2433                stack.append(node.this)
2434            else:
2435                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2436
2437        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2438        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2439        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2441    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2442        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2444    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2445        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2446        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2447        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2448        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2450    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2451        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2452
2453        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2454        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2455
2456        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2457            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2458                alias.append("columns", offset)
2459
2460        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2461            columns = alias.columns
2462            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2463        else:
2464            alias = self.sql(alias)
2465
2466        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2467        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2468            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2469        else:
2470            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2471                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2472            elif offset:
2473                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2474            else:
2475                suffix = alias
2476
2477        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2479    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2480        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2482    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2483        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2484        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2486    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2488        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2489        order = expression.args.get("order")
2490        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2491        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2492        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2493        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2494
2495        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2496
2497        first = expression.args.get("first")
2498        if first is None:
2499            first = ""
2500        else:
2501            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2502
2503        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2504            return f"{this} {alias}"
2505
2506        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2507        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2509    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2510        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2511        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2513    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2514        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2515        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2516        end = (
2517            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2518            or "CURRENT ROW"
2519        )
2520        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2522    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2524        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2525        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2527    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2530        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2531        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2533    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2534        return apply_index_offset(
2535            expression.this,
2536            expression.expressions,
2537            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2538        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2540    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2541        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2542        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2543        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2545    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2546        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2548    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2550        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2551            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2552                this = self.wrap(this)
2553            return f"ANY{this}"
2554        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2556    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2557        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2559    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2561        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2562
2563        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2564            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2565            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2566
2567        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2568
2569        if default:
2570            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2571
2572        statements.append("END")
2573
2574        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2575            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2576
2577        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2579    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2581        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2582        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2584    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2585        order = expression.args.get("order")
2586        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2587        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2589    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2590        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2591        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2592        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2594    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2595        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2596
2597        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2598            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2599        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2600            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2601        else:
2602            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2604    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2605        args = expression.expressions
2606        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2607            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2608
2609        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2610            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2611
2612        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2613            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2614
2615        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2617    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2618        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2619
2620        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2621        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2622            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2623
2624        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2626    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2627        return self.func(
2628            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2629        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2631    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2632        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2633        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2635    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2636        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2637        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2638        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2639        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2640        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2641        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2642        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2643        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2645    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2646        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2647        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2648        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2649        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2651    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2652        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2654    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2655        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2656        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2657        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2659    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2660        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2662    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2663        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2664        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2665            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2666
2667        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2669    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2670        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2671            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2672            if not callable(transform):
2673                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2674                return ""
2675
2676            return transform(self, expression)
2677
2678        if isinstance(expression, int):
2679            return str(expression)
2680
2681        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2682            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2683            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2684        else:
2685            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2686            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2687
2688        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2690    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2691        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2693    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2694        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2695        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2696
2697        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2698        if unique_keys is not None:
2699            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2700        else:
2701            unique_keys = ""
2702
2703        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2704        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2705        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2706        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2707
2708        return self.func(
2709            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2710            *expression.expressions,
2711            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2712        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2714    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2715        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2717    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2718        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2719        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2720        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2721        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2722        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2723        return self.func(
2724            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2725        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2727    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2729        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2730        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2731        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2732        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2733        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2734        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2735        return self.func(
2736            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2737            this,
2738            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2739        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2741    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2742        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2743        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2744        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2745
2746        if nested_schema:
2747            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2748
2749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2750        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2751        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2752        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2754    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2755        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2757    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2759        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2760        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2761        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2762        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2763        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2764        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2765        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2766        return self.func(
2767            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2768        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2770    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2772        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2773        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2774        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2775        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2776        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2778    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2780        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2781        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2782        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2783        with_ = (
2784            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2785            if expressions
2786            else ""
2787        )
2788        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2790    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2791        query = expression.args.get("query")
2792        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2793        field = expression.args.get("field")
2794        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2795
2796        if query:
2797            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2798        elif unnest:
2799            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2800        elif field:
2801            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2802        else:
2803            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2804
2805        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2807    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2808        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2810    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2811        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2812        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2813            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2814        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2815
2816        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2817            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2818            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2819
2820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2821        if this:
2822            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2823            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2824
2825        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2827    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2828        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2830    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2832        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2833        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2834        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2835        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2836        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2838    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2839        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2841    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2842        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2843        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2845    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2846        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2847        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2848        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2849        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2851    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2852        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2854    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2855        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2856        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2857        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2859    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2860        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2861        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2862
2863        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2864            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2865        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2866            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2867
2868        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2870    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2871        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2873    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2875        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2876        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2878    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2880        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2881        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2883    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2886        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2888    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2889        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2891    def and_sql(
2892        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2893    ) -> str:
2894        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2896    def or_sql(
2897        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2898    ) -> str:
2899        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2901    def xor_sql(
2902        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2903    ) -> str:
2904        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2906    def connector_sql(
2907        self,
2908        expression: exp.Connector,
2909        op: str,
2910        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2911    ) -> str:
2912        if stack is not None:
2913            if expression.expressions:
2914                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2915            else:
2916                stack.append(expression.right)
2917                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2918                    for comment in expression.comments:
2919                        if comment:
2920                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2921                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2922            return op
2923
2924        stack = [expression]
2925        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2926        ops = set()
2927
2928        while stack:
2929            node = stack.pop()
2930            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2931                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2932            else:
2933                sql = self.sql(node)
2934                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2935                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2936                else:
2937                    sqls.append(sql)
2938
2939        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2940        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2942    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2943        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2945    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2946        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2948    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2949        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2951    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2952        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2954    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2955        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2957    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2958        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2960    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2961        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2962        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2963        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2964        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2965        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2966        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2967        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2969    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2970        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2971        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2973    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2974        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2976    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2977        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2978            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2979        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2981    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2982        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2984    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2986        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2987        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2988        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2989        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2990        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2992    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2994        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2995        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2996        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2997        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2998        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2999        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3000        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3001        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3003    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3004        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3005        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3006        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3007        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3008
3009        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3010            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3011
3012        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3014    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3015        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3017    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3018        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3019        if chain is not None:
3020            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3021
3022        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3024    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3025        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3026        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3027        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3029    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3031
3032        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3033        if dtype:
3034            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3035            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3036            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3037            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3038            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3039
3040        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3041        if default:
3042            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3043
3044        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3045        if comment:
3046            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3047
3048        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3049        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3050
3051        if not drop and not allow_null:
3052            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3053
3054        if allow_null is not None:
3055            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3056            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3057
3058        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3060    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3062        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3063            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3064        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3066    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3067        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3069        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3070        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3071        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3073    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3074        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3075            # Remove db from tables
3076            expression = expression.transform(
3077                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3078            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3079        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3080        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3082    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3083        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3084        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3085        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3086        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3088    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3089        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3090        return f"SET {exprs}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3092    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3093        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3094
3095        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3096            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3097        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3098            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3099        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3100            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3101        else:
3102            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3103
3104        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3105        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3106        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3107        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3108        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3109        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3110        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3112    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3113        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3114            return self.expressions(
3115                expression,
3116                key="actions",
3117                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3118            )
3119        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3121    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3122        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3123        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3124        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3126    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3127        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3129    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3130        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3131
3132        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3133            case = exp.case()
3134            for arg in expression.expressions:
3135                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3136            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3137
3138        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3139
3140        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3141        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3142        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3144    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3145        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3147    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3148        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3150    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3151        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3152        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3153        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3154        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3156    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3157        return self.sql(
3158            exp.Cast(
3159                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3160                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3161            )
3162        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3164    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3165        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3166            return self.func(
3167                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3168            )
3169        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3171    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3172        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3173
3174        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3175            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3176
3177        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3178            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3179                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3180
3181        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3182            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3183                return self.sql(
3184                    exp.cast(
3185                        l / r,
3186                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3187                    )
3188                )
3189
3190        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3192    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3193        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3195    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3196        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3198    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3199        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3201    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3202        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3204    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3205        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3207    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3208        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3210    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3211        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3213    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3214        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3216    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3217        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3219    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3220        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3222    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3223        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3225    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3226        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3227            return self.sql(
3228                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3229            )
3230        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3232    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3233        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3235    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3236        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3238    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3239        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3241    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3242        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3244    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3245        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3247    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3248        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3250    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3251        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3253    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3254        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3256    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3257        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3259    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3260        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3262    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3263        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3265    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3266        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3268    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3269        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3271    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3272        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3273            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3274            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3275
3276        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3278    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3279        this = expression.this
3280        expr = expression.expression
3281
3282        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3283            this, expr = expr, this
3284        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3285            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3286                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3287
3288            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3289
3290        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3292    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3293        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3294        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3295        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3296        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3297        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3299    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3300        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3301        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3303    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3304        args = []
3305
3306        for key in expression.arg_types:
3307            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3308
3309            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3310                for value in arg_value:
3311                    args.append(value)
3312            elif arg_value is not None:
3313                args.append(arg_value)
3314
3315        if self.normalize_functions:
3316            name = expression.sql_name()
3317        else:
3318            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3319
3320        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3322    def func(
3323        self,
3324        name: str,
3325        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3326        prefix: str = "(",
3327        suffix: str = ")",
3328    ) -> str:
3329        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3331    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3332        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3333        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3334            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3335        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3337    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3338        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3340    def format_time(
3341        self,
3342        expression: exp.Expression,
3343        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3344        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3345    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3346        return format_time(
3347            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3348            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3349            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3350        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3352    def expressions(
3353        self,
3354        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3355        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3356        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3357        flat: bool = False,
3358        indent: bool = True,
3359        skip_first: bool = False,
3360        skip_last: bool = False,
3361        sep: str = ", ",
3362        prefix: str = "",
3363        dynamic: bool = False,
3364        new_line: bool = False,
3365    ) -> str:
3366        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3367
3368        if not expressions:
3369            return ""
3370
3371        if flat:
3372            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3373
3374        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3375
3376        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3377        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3378            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3379
3380        result_sqls = []
3381        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3382            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3383            if not sql:
3384                continue
3385
3386            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3387
3388            if self.pretty:
3389                if self.leading_comma:
3390                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3391                else:
3392                    result_sqls.append(
3393                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3394                    )
3395            else:
3396                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3397
3398        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3399            if new_line:
3400                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3401                result_sqls.append("")
3402            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3403        else:
3404            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3405        return (
3406            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3407            if indent
3408            else result_sql
3409        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3411    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3412        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3413        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3414        if flat:
3415            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3416        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3418    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3419        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3420        if not property_name:
3421            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3422        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3424    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3425        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3427    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3428        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3430    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3432        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3433        expressions = (
3434            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3435        )
3436        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3438    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3440        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3441        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3443    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3444        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3446    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3447        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3448        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3449        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3450        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3451
3452        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3453        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3454            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3455            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3456            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3457            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3458        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3459            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3460                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3461            else:
3462                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3463        else:
3464            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3465        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3467    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3468        table = expression.this
3469        table_alias = ""
3470
3471        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3472        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3473            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3474            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3475
3476        this = self.sql(table)
3477        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3478        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3479        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3480        sep = self.sep()
3481
3482        return self.prepend_ctes(
3483            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3484        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3486    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3487        if expression.args.get("format"):
3488            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3489
3490        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3492    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3493        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3494            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3495            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3496
3497        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3498        if not fmt:
3499            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3500            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3501
3502        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3504    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3505        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3506        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3507        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3508        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3509        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3511    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3513        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3514        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3515        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3517    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3518        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3520    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3521        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3523    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3524        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3525        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3526        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3527        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3528        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3530    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3532        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3533
3534        if having:
3535            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3536
3537        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3539    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3540        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3541        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3542        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3543        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3544        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3545        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3546        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3547        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3548        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3549        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3550        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3551        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3552        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3554    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3555        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3556        if key_block_size:
3557            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3558
3559        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3560        if using:
3561            return f"USING {using}"
3562
3563        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3564        if parser:
3565            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3566
3567        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3568        if comment:
3569            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3570
3571        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3572        if visible is not None:
3573            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3574
3575        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3576        if engine_attr:
3577            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3578
3579        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3580        if secondary_engine_attr:
3581            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3582
3583        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3584        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3586    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3587        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3588        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3590    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3591        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3592        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3594        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3595        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3596        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3597        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3598        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3599        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3600        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3601        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3603    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3604        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3605            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3606
3607        case = exp.Case().when(
3608            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3609            expression.args["true"],
3610            copy=False,
3611        )
3612        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3613        if else_cond:
3614            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3615
3616        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3618    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3619        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3620        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3621        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3622        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3623        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3624        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3626    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3627        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3629    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3630        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3632    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3633        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3634        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3635        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3636        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3637        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3638        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3640    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3642        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3643        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3645    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3647        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3648        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3650    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3651        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3653    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3654        arg = expression.this
3655        if not arg.type:
3656            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3657
3658            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3659
3660        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3661            return self.sql(arg)
3662
3663        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3664        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3666    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3667        this = expression.this
3668        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3669            return self.sql(this)
3670
3671        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3673    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3674        this = expression.this
3675        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3676            return self.sql(this)
3677
3678        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3680    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3681        this = expression.this
3682        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3683
3684        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3685            return self.sql(
3686                exp.cast(
3687                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3688                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3689                )
3690            )
3691
3692        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3693            return self.sql(this)
3694
3695        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3697    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3698        return self.sql(
3699            exp.func(
3700                "DATEDIFF",
3701                expression.this,
3702                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3703                "day",
3704            )
3705        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3707    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3708        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3709            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3710
3711        unit = expression.text("unit")
3712        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3713            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3714
3715        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3717    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3718        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3719
3720        return self.func(
3721            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3722        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3724    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3725        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3726            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3727            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3728            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3729            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3730
3731        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3732
3733        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3734        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3735            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3736
3737        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3739    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3740        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3741        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3743    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3744        expression.set(
3745            "expressions",
3746            [
3747                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3748                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3749                else e
3750                for e in expression.expressions
3751            ],
3752        )
3753
3754        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3756    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3757        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3758        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3759
3760        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3762    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3763        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3764        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3765
3766        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3767
3768        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3769        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3770
3771        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3772        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3773
3774        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3775        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3776
3777        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3778        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3779
3780        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3784    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3785        to = expression.this
3786        value = expression.expression
3787        style = expression.args.get("style")
3788        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3789        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3790
3791        if not to or not value:
3792            return ""
3793
3794        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3795        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3796            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3797
3798        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3799        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3800
3801        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3802        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3803            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3804
3805            style_value = style.name
3806            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3807            if not converted_style:
3808                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3809
3810            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3811
3812            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3813                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3814            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3815                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3816            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3817                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3818            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3819                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3820
3821        if not transformed:
3822            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3823
3824        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3880    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3881        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3882
3883        if expression.expressions:
3884            upper = option.upper()
3885
3886            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3887            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3888
3889            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3890            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3891            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3892            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3893
3894        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3895
3896        if not value:
3897            return option
3898
3899        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3900
3901        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3903    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3904        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3905        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3906            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3907            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3908            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3909        else:
3910            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3911            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3912            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3913
3914        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3915        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3916
3917        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3918        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3919
3920        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3921        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3922
3923        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3924        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3925
3926        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3928    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3930        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3931
3932        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3933        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3934        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3935        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3936
3937        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3938        params = self.expressions(
3939            expression,
3940            key="params",
3941            sep=sep,
3942            new_line=True,
3943            skip_last=True,
3944            skip_first=True,
3945            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3946        )
3947
3948        if params:
3949            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3950                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3951            elif not self.pretty:
3952                params = f" {params}"
3953
3954        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3956    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3957        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3959    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3960        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3961        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3962        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3963        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3964        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3965
3966        if filter_col or retention_period:
3967            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3968
3969        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
3971    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3972        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3973    ) -> str:
3974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3975        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3976        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3977        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
3979    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3981        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3982        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])